
Glass / 'B^o /- 



Book 






U+\iO 



COI^YRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



li 6 



|ntern:aii0iTal (^bxtratioit %txm 

EDITED BY 

WILLIAM T. HARRIS, A. M., LL. D. 



Volume XL 



ELEMENTARY PEDAGOGY. 



CONTRIBUTIONS BY JOSEPH BALDWIN, A. M., LL. D. 



Volume I. 

Art of 
School Man- 
agement. 

Kirksville. 
Missouri State 
Normal School. 



Volume II. 

Elementary 

Psychology. 

Vol. \a, Int. 

Ed. Ser. 

Huntsville. 

Texas State 

Normal School. 



VoLUxME III. 

Psychology 
APPLIED to 
the Art of 
Teaching. 

Vol. XIX. Int. 

Ed. Ser. 

Austin. 
University of 

Texas. 



Volume IV. 
School Man- 
agement AND 
School 
Methods. 

Vol. XL, 
Int. Ed. Ser. 

Austin. 

University of 

Texas. 



I. Educational Instrumentalities and School 

Hygiene. 
II. School Organization and Classification. 

III. School Government and Educative Punish- 

ments. 

IV. Courses of Study and Programmes. 

V. Class Management and Methods of Teaching. 
VI. Examination, Marking, Records, Promotion, 

and Graduation. 
VII. Professional Education, School Supervision, 
and Educational Progress. 
I. Instinct, Sensorium, Sensation, and Atten- 
tion. 
II. Sense Perception, Self Perception, and Ne- 
cessary Perception. 

III. Memory, Fancy, and Imagination. 

IV. Conception, Judgment, and Reason. 

V. Egoistic Emotions, Altruistic Emotions, and 

Cosmic Emotions. 

VI. Will — Attention, Choice, and Action. 
VII. Physiological Psychology and Education. 

I. Education of the Perceptive Activities. 
II. Education of the Representative Activities. 

III. Education of the Reflective Activities. 

IV. Education of the Emotional Activities. 
V. Education of the Will Activities. 

V[. The Art of Teaching and Teaching Methods. 
VII. Application of Psychology to teaching Con- 
duct Studies, Language-Literature Stud- 
ies, Science Studies, Mathematics Studies, 
and Art Studies. 

I. Pupil Betterment through Better Educa- 
tional Conditions. 
11. Pupil Betterment through Better Educa- 
tional Facilities. 

III. Pupil Improvement through Educative 

School Government. 

IV. Pupil Improvement through Educative Cor- 

relation of Schools and School Work. 
V. Pupil Betterment through Educative Class 
Management and Class Methods. 

VI. Pupil Improvement through Efficient Meth- 

ods of teaching the Conduct Studies, the 
Language-Literature Studies, the Science 
Studies, the Mathematics Studies, and the 
Art Studies. 

VII. Pupil Betterment through Educative School 

Unification and Supervision. 



INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES. 

12iao, cloth, uniform binding. 



'T'HE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES was projected for the pur- 
-*- pose of bringing together in orderly arrangement the best writings, new and 
old, npon educational subjects, and presenting a complete course of reading and 
training for teachers generally. It is edited by William T. Harris, LL. D., 
United States Commissioner of Education, who has contributed for the different 
volumes ia the way of introduction, analysis, and commentary. The volumes are 
tastefully and substantially bound in uniform style. 

VOLUMES NOW BEADY. 

1. THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION. By Johann K. Y. Rosenkranz, 

Doctor of Theology and Professor of Philosophy, University of Koaigt^berg. 
Translated by Anna C. Brackett. Second edition, revised, with Com- 
mentary and complete Analysis. $1.50. 

2. A HISTORY OF EDUCATION. By F. V. N. Painter, A.M., Professor of 

Modern Languages and Literature, Roanoke College, Va. $1-50. 

3. THE RISE AND EARLY CONSTITUTION OF UNIVERSITIES. With 

a Survey of MEDiiEVAL Education. By S. S. Laurie, LL.D., Professor 
of the Institutes and History of Education, University of Edinburgh. $1.50. 

4. THE VENTILATION AND WARMING OF SCHOOL BITILDINGS. By 

Gilbert B. Morrison, Teacher of Physics and Chemistry, Kansas City 
High School. $1.00. 

5. THE EDUCATION OF MAN. By Friedrich Froebel. Translated and 

annotated by W\ N. Hailmann, A. M., Superintendent of Public Schools, 
La Porte, Ind. $1.50. 

6. ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. By Joseph Bald- 

win, A.M., LL. D., author of " The Art of School Management." $1.50. 

7. THE SENSES AND THE WILL. (Part I of " The Mind of the Child.'^ 

By W. Preter, Professor of Physiology in Jena. Translated by H. W. 
Brown, Teacher in the State Normal School at Worcester, Mass. $1.50. 

8. MEMORY : What it is and how to Improve it. By David Kat, F.R.G.S., 

author of " Education and Educators," etc. $1.50. 

9. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECT. (Part H of " The Mind 

OF THE Child.") By W. Preyer, Professor of Physiology in Jena. Trans- 
lated by H. W. Brown. $1.50. 

10. HOW TO STUDY GEOGRAPHY. A Practical Exposition of Methods and 

Devices in Teaching Geography which apply tbe Principles and Plans of 
Ritter and Guyot. By Francis W. Parker, Principal of the Cook County 
(Illinois) Normal School. $1.50. 

11. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : Its History from the Ear- 

liest Settlements. By Richard G. Boone, A.M., Professor of Peda- 
gogy, Indiana University. $1.50. 

12. EUROPEAN SCHOOLS : or. What I Saw in the Schools of Germany, 

France, Austria, and Switzerland. Bv L. R. Klemm, Ph. D., Principal 
of the Cincinnati Technical School. Fully-illustrated. $2.00. 

13. PRACTICAL HINTS FOR THE TEACHERS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

By George Howland, Superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools. $1.00. 

14. PESTALOZZI : Hrs Life and Work. By Roger de Guimps. Authorized 

Translation from the second French edition, bv J. Russell, B. A. With an 
Introduction by Rev. R. H. Quick, M. A. $1.50. 

15. SCHOOL SUPERVISION. By J. L. Pickard, LL. D. $1.00. 

16. HIGHER EDUCATION OF WOISIEN IN EUROPE. By Helene Lange, 

Berlin. Translated and accompanied by comparative statistics by L. R. 
Klemm. $1.00. 

17. ESSAYS ON EDUCATIONAL REFORMERS. By Robert Herbert 

Quick, M. A., Trinity College, Cambridge. Only authorized edition of the 
work as rewritten in 1890. $1.50. 



THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES.— {Continued:) 

18. A TEXT-BOOK IN PSYCHOLOGY. By Johann Friedkich Herb art. 

Translated by Margaret K. Smith. $1.00. 

19. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO THE ART OF TEACHING. By Joseph 

Baldwin, A. M., LL. D. $1.50. 

20. ROUSSEAU'S EMILE : or. Treatise on Education. Translated and an- 

notated by W. H. Payne, Ph. D., LL. D., Chancellor of the University of 
Nashville. $1.50. 

21. THE MORAL INSTRUCTION OF CHILDREN. By Felix Adler. $1.50. 

22. ENGLISH EDUCATION IN THE ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS. By Isaac Sharpless, LL. D., President of Haverford College. 
$1.00. 

23. EDUCATION FROM A NATIONAL STANDPOINT. By Alfred FouiL- 

lee. $1.50. 

24. MENTAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE CHILD. By W. Preter, Professor 

of Physiology in Jena. Translated by H. W. Brown. $1.00. 

25. HOW TO STUDY AND TEACH HISTORY. By B. A. Hinsdale, Ph. D., 

LL. D., University of Michigan. $1.50. 

26. SYMBOLIC EDUCATION : A Commentary on Fkoebel's " Mother 

Play." By Susan E. Blow. $1.50. 

27. SYSTEMATIC SCIENCE TEACHING. By Edward Gardnier Howe. 

$1.50. 

28. THE EDUCATION OF THE GREEK PEOPLE. By Thomas Davidson. 

$1.50. 

29. THE EVOLUTION OF THE MASSACHUSETTS PUBLIC-SCHOOL 

SYSTEM. By G. H. Martln, A.M. $1.50. 

30. PEDAGOGICS OF THE KINDERGARTEN. By Friedrich Froebel. 

12mo. $1.50. 

31. THE MOTTOES AND COMMENTARIES OF FRIEDRICH FROEBEL'S 

MOTHER PLAY. By Susan E. Blow and Henrietta R. Eliot. $1.50. 

32. THE SONGS AND MUSIC OF FROEBEL'S MOTHER PLAY. By 

Susan E. Blow. $1.50. 

33. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF NUMBER, and its Applications to Methods 

of Teaching Arithmetic. By James A. McLellan, A.M., and John 
Dewey, Ph. D. $1.50. 

34. TEACHING THE LANGUAGE-ARTS. Speech, Reading, Composition. 

By B. A. Hinsdale, Ph. D., LL. D., Professor of Science and the Art of 
Teaching in the University of Michigan. $1.00. 

35. THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD. 

Part I. Containing Chapters on Perception, Emotion, Memory, 
Imagination, and Consciousness. Bv Gabriel Compayre. Translated 
from the French by Mary E. Wilson, B. L. Smith College, Member of the 
Graduate Seminary in Child Study. University of California. $1.50. 

36. HERBART'S A B C OF SENSE-PERCEPTION, AND INTRODUCTORY 

WORKS. By William J. Eckoff, Ph. D., Pd. D., Professor of Pedagogy 
in the University of Illinois; Author of "Kanfs Inaugural Dissertation." 
$1.50. 

37. PSYCHOLOGIC FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION. By William T. 

Harris, A. M., LL. D. $1.50. 

38. THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF ONTARIO. By the Hon. George W. Ross, 

LL. D., Minister of Education for the Province of Ontario. $1.00. 

39. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. By James Johonnot. 

%\.m. 

40. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. By Joseph Bald- 

win. $1.50. 

other volumes in preparation. 



New York : D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 72 Fifth Avenue. 



INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES 



^ 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 
AND SCHOOL METHODS 



BY 

JOSEPH BALDWm, M. A., LL. D. 

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS 

AUTHOR OF ART OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY, 

AND PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO THE ART OF TEACHING 




^. 



D. APPLETa-iCSaSS^-^^^P^^^ 

1897 



.o\\ 






Copyright, 1897, 
By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY. 



Electrotyped and Printed 

AT THE APPLETON PrESS, U. S. A. 



EDITOE'S PEEFACE. 



According to the scheme upon which tliis series 
of books has been edited, the present work falls under 
the fourth division — under the Art of Education. 
The first division includes history of education ; the 
second division, educational criticism, including the 
writings of the educational reformers ; the third di- 
vision includes systematic treatises on the theory of 
education ; the fourth, writings upon the art of edu- 
cation in two divisions — first, works on instruction 
and discipline and the practical details of the school- 
room ; second, works on the organization and super- 
vision of schools. 

The present book discusses : First, the hygienic 
conditions of the schoolroom and grounds, and the 
formation of healthful habits on the part of the pu- 
pils. In the past twenty-five years very much has 
been done in the way of studying these hygienic 
conditions. At first there were many investigations, 
made especially by German observers, upon the ef- 
fect of the schoolroom and the preparation of lessons 
upon the eyesight. It was found that a large per- 
centage of the children in the higher grades of 
school work had become near-sighted. The most 



yi EDITOH'S PREFACE. 

prominent cause of this was found to be the insuffi- 
ciently lighted schoolroom or the injudicious study of 
the pupil at home in the twilight of evening or morn- 
ing, and also with insufficient artificial light. The 
pupil makes up for the lack of light by holding his 
book nearer to his eyes than their actual focus re- 
quires. This after a time leads to a permanent read- 
justment of that focus, and the disease called myopia 
has then become permanent. The light should come 
in sufficient quantity upon the left side of the pupil, 
for in writing he will form the letters in the shadow 
of his right hand if the light comes from the right 
side. It is very important that the light shall not 
come from windows in front of the pupil, because the 
bright light occasions a contraction of the pupils of 
the eyes, while the attempt to discriminate objects, 
such as the teacher's face, for instance, in the direc- 
tion of that light, is rendered difficult and painful, 
and injury through the eyes results to the entire 
nervous system. Again, the subject of the air of the 
schoolroom has been carefully investigated and the 
relative amount of carbonic acid in the air, together 
with other injurious elements, has been tabulated. It 
has often happened that nearly as much injury has 
come to the pupils through injudicious ventilation as 
through the want of ventilation. The windows, open 
from the bottom, allow currents of cold air to flow in 
upon the pupils, occasioning rheumatism and bad 
colds, even planting the seeds of consumption and 
heart disease. 

It is not easy to correct these school evils. As 
already intimated, there has been nearly as much evil 



EDITOR'S PllEFACE. yii 

created by the remedies as avoided by tliem. " The 
fresh-air fiend " is nearly as great an evil to society as 
the fiend of neglect ; but this is no apology for the 
existence of the latter. We must have fresh air, and 
under proper conditions. In the name of hygiene 
we have had a system of calisthenic exercises, often 
introduced in such a way as to abolish the good old- 
time school recess, wherein the child rests not only his 
intellect, but his will power, playing or refraining 
from play according to his caprice. Play differs 
from work in the fact that it depends entirely upon 
the spontaneity of the pupil, while work requires the 
tension of the will, and that, too, in the line of activ- 
ity prescribed by outside authority. Calisthenics 
therefore belongs to the working activity, inasmuch 
as it is a vigorous exercise of the will but entirely in 
conformity with the will of another person, the direc- 
tor of the exercises. Looked at from the standpoint 
of wise physicians who have undertaken the direction 
of college athletics, one shudders at the hideous viola- 
tions of the laws of health which were imported into our 
schools in the past generation under the plea of hygiene. 
Under the head of better educational facilities 
Prof. Baldwin calls attention to the school appa- 
ratus and improved schoolhouses. It is fortunate in 
our time that so much inventive talent is expended 
upon devices for facilitating school work. No subject 
is more practical than school discipline. The profes- 
sionally educated teacher is a comparative novice in his 
work until he masters the art of school government. 
He should govern so as to continually develop a rational 
self-control on the part of the pupil, and his training 



viii EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

should result in the formation of habits of self-help 
bj means of the book, and in skill in the art of orig- 
inal investigation and verification ; but the novice in 
teaching finds himself directly opposed by the pupil's 
self-will at the beginning. The government of the 
school requires obedience on the part of the pupil, 
but all pupils who inherit a disposition to strong wills 
are reluctant to submit to the authority of the teacher. 
How can this be managed without leaning too far in 
the direction of anarchy and chaos in the school 
which would result in tyranny on the part of the 
older pupils over the younger pupils or, on the otlier 
hand, leaning toward despotism and mere blind obedi- 
ence on the part of the pupil? The art of school 
management in this important particular has made 
more progress in the United States during the past 
thirty years than any other practical phase of school 
teaching. Our methods of instruction, which have 
striven to substitute self -activity of the pupil in the 
way of investigation for mere memorizing or parrot- 
ing the words of the book or teacher, have certainly 
made less progress than the art of school discipline. In 
the past, not many years ago, corporal punishment was 
very frequent. The schools in the majority of our 
cities have so far overcome the habit of resorting to 
corporal punishment that the schoolroom now assumes 
the atmosphere of a pleasant and urbane assemblage 
of a well-mannered family in the home. The air of 
freedom and polite behaviour takes the place of the 
suppressed and sullen mien of old times. The signifi- 
cance of this upon the formation of the future citizen 
in a democracy is obvious. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE. ix 

Another rubric almost as important as the last is 
that of class methods and management. The igno- 
rance of intelligent people, even those engaged in the 
work of education, in this matter is astonishing. The 
advantage of the class recitation over the teaching of 
the private tutor is not well understood. The class is 
the most potent of all the instruments in the teacher's 
hand. He so manages the recitation or class exercises 
that each pupil learns to see the lesson through the 
minds of all his fellows, and he learns likewise to 
criticise the imperfect statements made by them 
through the more adequate comprehension of the 
teacher. It must be remembered, too, that the de- 
fects of view which one pupil shows in the recitation 
are not the same defects that others have. Each pu- 
pil therefore, even the humblest, is in some respects 
able to criticise the work of his fellows, although he 
in turn may be subject to a more severe criticism in 
regard to other aspects of the work of the day. The 
good teacher so manages the recitation that at its 
close every member of the class commences the prep- 
aration of another lesson with some new insight into 
method of study. He is on the alert for phases of 
the subject which he had neglected the day before. 
To make the pupil alert in all reasonable directions is 
the main object. The pupil will become able to con- 
duct his own investigations by the aid of the printed 
page and by the original study of the objects of ISTa- 
ture or art to which his topic relates. 

The selection of the course of study is a matter of 
school management of equal importance with that of 
the method of handling the class lesson. There are 



X EDITOR'S PREFACE. 

certain " windows of the soul " which are closed in 
the mind of the illiterate person, bnt which are opened 
by the education of the school. These windows look 
out upon the five provinces : {a) Inorganic Xature 
(arithmetic) ; ih) organic Mature (geography) ; {c) the 
intellect and the logical process of the mind as re- 
vealed in grammar and similar studies ; {d) the will 
power of man as manifested in the forming of insti- 
tutions and in the struggle of nations one against 
another and with refractory individuals, the study of 
the greater self of man as found in social wholes (his- 
tory) ; and {e) the window opened by literature which 
looks upon the manifestation of human nature in its 
most intimate aspects ; for literature reveals the 
human heart, first, as the seat of feeling ; then the 
rise out of this dim unconscious realm of feeling into 
that of clear conviction and insight into principles ; 
then, last, the realizing of these ideas in action. Feel- 
ings, convictions, deeds — the three products of human 
nature — are shown to the pupil in the prose and 
poetry of literature. !No knowledge is so practical as 
that of human nature, and no study plays so large a 
part in the forming of the practical contents of the 
citizen's mind as his study of literature. 

Glimpses are given throughout the following book 
of tlie best practical methods of organizing and super- 
vising schools, and in this respect it is believed by 
tlie publishers that it will prove of great service to 
school superintendents and school boards. 

W. T. Harris. 

Washington, D. C, January 13, 1896. 



AUTHOE'S PEEFACE. 



School management and school methods are the 
twin arts of pupil betterment. Pupil improvement is 
the central idea. What is the best thing for the pu- 
pil? This question determines every school measure. 
In these chapters we study pupil betterment : 1. 
Through improved educational conditions. 2. Through 
better educational facilities. 3. Through rational 
school government. 4. Through educative class 
work. 5. Through better organization and correla- 
tion of schools and school work. 6. Through effi- 
cient methods of teaching. 7. Through efficient 
supervision. 

Perpetual progress is* the keynote. The sacrifice 
of a lower to a higher good is an incident in all true 
progress. The good often stands in the way of the 
best, and unthinking conservatism is the enemy of 
progress. The true teacher is ever advancing from 
the good to the better. As progress comes from ideals 
in advance of reals, teachers are here incited to form 
higher and higher ideals, and earnestly strive to real- 
ize them. We think of the teacher as an educational 
artist, working out anew the problems of school bet- 
terment, and skilfully leading pupils to make the 

xi 



xii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

most of themselves. The purpose is to assist earnest 
independent workers by the most helpful facts and 
the most fruitful suggestions, and by inspiring each 
teacher to work out grandly his own salvation. 

The isolated school and the isolated teacher be- 
long to the past. Incomparably the greatest educa- 
tional reform of our times is the organic grouping of 
schools and the organization of all teachers into facul- 
ties. Each group of schools is sui generis, and each 
faculty is a teaching unit. A faculty devotes itself to 
its specific problems ; thus a primary faculty devotes 
itself to child study, primary management, and pri- 
mary methods. The author seeks to interest all 
teachers in this vital reform as the best means for 
promoting all reforms. 

Educative school government is fundamental. 
School management is eminently the art of rational 
school o^overnment. The modern teacher is the friend 
of the pupil and governs up to self-government. 
Teachers are asked to study anew the philosophy of 
controlling up to self-control, and thus give to their 
schools the " atmosphere of an urbane assemblage of a 
well-mannered family." I believe the time has come 
when we may safely discard extraneous incentives, such 
as rewards, per-cent marking, formal examinations, and 
corporal punishment. It seems to me infinitely better 
to secure good conduct and good study throngh enno- 
bling motives. The plan for rational school govern- 
ment is revolutionary, but it accords with the best in 
modern school life, and I deem it sound in theory as 
well as eminently practical. It is with peculiar pleas- 
ure that I submit the chapters on school government. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xiii 

Conduct culture is the greatest thing in education. 
In this book the conduct studies take the highest rank, 
and we study to make conduct teaching as systematic 
and thorough as the work in mathematics. All teach- 
ers are first of all character growers, and conduct cul- 
ture stands first. This is the educational superlative. 
It is my deepest desire to intensely interest teachers in 
the art of promoting good conduct. Systematic con- 
duct teaching will do most for pupil betterment. 

The better orgaiuzation and correlation of schools 
and school work interest all men. Germany and 
France and England have made valuable contributions, 
but the best work has been done by our Committee of 
Ten, our Committee of Fifteen, and our Committee of 
Twelve. It gives me satisfaction to submit this con- 
tribution, which has cost me years of hard work. I 
feel safe in commending the scheme for rural school 
betterment. A plan for intermediate specialization is 
submitted tentatively. The sporadic experiments in 
grammar-school departmental teaching, predoomed to 
failure, and the decided opposition of leading educa- 
tors, have, as I think, set back for a decade the dial of 
progress. In another decade or two, I do not doubt, 
the necessities of progress will naturally lead to the 
evolution of our wasteful grammar schools into efii- 
cient specialized intermediate schools, and the objec- 
tions now so ably urged will disappear in view of the 
immense gains. But the transformation must be radi- 
cal, and intermediate specialization must be unique. 
I appeal to the brotherhood of teachers : let true in- 
termediate specialization be submitted to the test of 
scientific experiment. That it will double the value 



xiv AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

of the grammar school and incalculably benefit the 
teaching profession, seems to me certain. 

The teaching art is a boundless realm of high 
endeavour. Efficient methods of teaching the con- 
duct studies, the language-literature studies, the science 
studies, the mathematics studies, and the art studies 
need to be treated by masters and in many volumes. 
All that can be attempted in a book like this is to 
outline the work and refer teachers to some of the 
best manuals of methods. The aim is to help the 
teachers to gain a comprehensive view of the entire 
school work, so that they may intelligently do their 
special work. 

Teachers struggling up alone have our prof oundest 
sympathies, and these pages have been written in view 
of aiding this large and deserving class. But in the 
near future these isolated teachers will get together 
and will work far more profitably in circles and in 
faculties. I have studied to make this pre-eminently 
a suitable text-book for classes of teachers. I have 
found the following plan of study most satisfactory : 

1. Study an assigned chapter. Each chapter is 
complete in itself, and is devoted to a vital educational 
topic. The cliapters may be studied consecutively, or 
may be taken up in any determined order. 

2. Read some similar worh. Let each member of 
the class read a different book and report what is said 
on the topic under discussion. Such helpful works as 
White's School Management, Thompson's Philosophy 
of School Management, Parker's Concentration, and 
Landon's Teaching and Class Management are sug- 
gested. The latest Report of the Commissioner of 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. XV 

Education and the latest Journal of the National Edu- 
cational Association are considered indispensable. 

3. Read an educational journal. Bj arranging 
to have each teacher read a different journal, the les- 
son maj be enriched by the best current educational 
thought. Our school journals are becoming our best 
helps in practical school work and in promoting re- 
forms. 

4. Give your mews. What each teacher thinks is 
the important matter. Let each member of the circle 
study to make some original contribution. I venture 
to hope that these chapters, studied as suggested, will 
prove intensely interesting and exceedingly valuable. 
To favour busy teachers, I have given the Study Hints, 
the full Alphabetical Index, and the Topical Syllabus. 

It gives me special pleasure to acknowledge my 
indebtedness, first of all, to the editor of the Interna- 
tional Educational Series for reading the proof and 
for numerous helpful suggestions. I am especially 
indebted to my student readers who have genei'ously 
aided me in these investigations and in widely testing 
these plans. I wish to thank the faculty of the Uni- 
versity of Texas and the faculty of the Oswego Kew 
York State E"ormal School for valuable assistance. 
While claiming for this work some originality in plan 
and treatment, I desire to express my indebtedness to 
many educators, educational works, and educational 
journals that it has been impossible to credit. Once 
more I warmly thank my fellow-teachers and the press 
for the generous reception accorded to my humble 
contributions to our professional literature. 

It is easy to collect and dilute and so compile a 



xvi AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 

cheap book about school management ; but to create 
a helpful text-book for progressive teachers is a pro- 
digious undertaking. In order to do so, one needs to 
live in the great school world and vrork near its throb- 
bing heart. All educational problems must be studied 
anew in the light of educational science and human 
experience. Only what is safe and best must be ad- 
mitted. The antiquated, the hurtful, and even the 
doubtful must be rejected. A few vital topics must 
be selected and so treated as to inspire and guide. 
Finally, chapters must be condensed into pages and 
essays into paragraphs. Just here a personal allusion 
seems to be in place. I have endeavoured to put into 
these pages the results of four decades of study and 
teaching. During these years it has been my good 
fortune to work in rural schools, graded schools, nor- 
mal schools, and colleges, and to assist in training an 
army of more than ten thousand teachers. What I 
have found to be most helpful I submit to the great 

brotherhood of teachers. 

Joseph Baldwin. 
Austin, University of Texas, 
February 1, 1897. 



COISTTENTS. 



PAGE 

Editor's preface . . . vii 

Author's preface . . xi 

PAET I. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. 

CHAPTER 

I. — Pupil improvement through higher educational 

IDEALS 3 

II. — Pupil improvement through helpful pupil study . 12 
III. — Pupil improvement through teacher improve- 
ment 26 

IV. — Pupil improvement through better school hy- 
giene . . . . 38 

PART 11. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
ED UCA TIONAL FA CILITIES. 

V. — Pupil improvement through educative school en- 
vironments 57 

VI. — Pupil improvement through better school appli- 
ances 63 

VII. — Pupil improvement through helpful school appa- 
ratus 69 

VIII. — Pupil improvement through ideal school text- 
books 75 

IX. — Pupil improvement through suitable school li- 
braries 81 

xvii 



xviii CONTENTS. 



PART III. 

PUPIL UIPR0VE31ENT THROUGH EDU- 
CATIVE SCHOOL G0VEBN3IENT. 

CHAPTER PAGB 

X. — Pupil improvement through teacher governing 

POWER 93 

XI. — Pupil improvement through educative motives . 103 
XII. — Pupil improvement through educative school 

regulations 112 

XIII. — Pupil improvement through educative law- 
abiding 119 

XIV. — Pupil improvement through educative punish- 
ments 139 

PAET IV. 

PUPIL UIPROVEMENT THROUGH EDU- 
CATIVE CLASS MANAGEMENT AND 
CLASS WORK. 

XV. — Pupil improvement through skilful class or- 
ganization AND control 149 

XVI. — Pupil improvement through educative class 

methods and devices 158 

XVII, — Pupil improvement through helpful school and 

class tactics 173 

XVIII. — Pupil improvement through blending of oral 

AND BOOK class WORK 177 

XIX. — Pupil improvement through good teaching in 

lieu of extraneous incentives . . . 184 



PART V. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 

AND CORRELATION. 

XX. — Pupil improvement through educative correla- 
tion of schools and school courses . . 301 



CONTENTS. xix 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XXI. — Pupil improvement through efficient rural 

SCHOOLS 218 

XXII. — Pupil improvement through efficient kinder- 
garten AND primary schools .... 241 
XXIII. — Pupil improvement through specialized and 

correlated intermediate schools . . . 253 
XXIV. — Pupil improvement through specialized and 

correlated high schools .... 274 
XXV. — Student improvement through progressive and 

correlated colleges and universities. . 288 



PART VI. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFI- 
CIENT METHODS OF TEACHING. 

XXVI. — Efficient methods in conduct teaching . . 301 
XXVII. — Efficient methods in language - literature 

teaching 319 

XXVIII. — Efficient methods in science teaching . . 330 

XXIX. — Efficient methods in mathematics teaching . 341 

XXX. — Efficient methods in art teaching . . . 353 



PART I. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. 



CHAPTER I. — Pupil Improvement through Higher Educa- 
tional Ideals. 

II. — Pupil Improvement through Helpful Pupil 
Study. 

III. — Pupil Improvement through Teacher Improve- 
ment. 

IV. — Pupil Improvement through Better School 
Hygiene. 

1 



School ( The Pupil. 



A 



Essentials. ] The Teacher. 



o 
o 

tc 

W 

EH 



School 
Helps. 



Educative Conditions. 

Educative Facilities and Appliances. 

Educative School Government. 

Educative Class Management and Class 
Methods. 

Educative School Organization and Correla- 
tion. 

Educative Methods of Teaching — The Five 
Groups of Studies. 

Educative School Economy. 



3 



SCHOOL MA]:^AGEMEI^T AlSiD 
SCHOOL METHODS. 



CHAPTER I. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATIONAL * 

IDEALS. 

Progress comes of Ideals in Advance of Reals. — 

School management and teaching are the twin arts of 
"pupil betterment." In school evolution ideals get 
to be reals, and we advance as we transform the good 
into the better. In the realm of educational ideals 
there is a better and a best which ever beckon us on- 
ward and upward. 

The School utilizes all Educational Influences. — It 
enables the pupil to make more of himself than he 
otherwise could. It plans to lead the learner to real- 
ize all that is best in him. The school stands for civi- 
lization. Wherever we find a teaching body, as among 
the ancient Jews, we find an advancing civilization. 
The school is at once the creator, the conservator, 
and the elevator of civilization. The school stands 
for human progress. It leads the pupil to profit by 
the experience of mankind, and enriches him with the 
accumulated wisdom of the race. 

3 



4 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Pupil Improvement is the Central Idea in the School 
Organism. — We think of all educative agencies, even 
the teacher, as pupil helps. " Is this the best thing 
for the pupils ? " is the vital test of every school 
measure. School systems are created, schoolhouses 
are planned, school appliances are supplied, and teach- 
ers are prepared and sustained to promote pupil im- 
provement. The school is for the pupils, and school 
management and teaching are pre-eminently the arts 
of pupil betterment. Pupils are led to make the 
most of themselves by habitually doing their best 
under the best conditions. 

The School Organism is a Unit. — The pupil and 
the teacher are the school essentials ; all other educa- 
tive conditions and appliances are thought of as school 
helps. The organism exists for the pupil and grows 
around the pupil. We think of the teacher as giving 
vitality, and of school helps as giving efficiency to the 
organism. The central idea, pupil improvement, in- 
cludes the law of unity. All things are made to work 
together for pupil good, and school management be- 
comes the art of unitizing school work. 

School Evolution is Organic School Growth. — It 
means the realization of the possibilities of the school 
as an organism. The family is the embryo school, 
but the school, as we think of it, comes of the needs 
of progressive peoples. Savages feel no need of 
schools. The early schools of a people are astonish- 
ingly rudimentary and inefficient. Schools every- 
where have been evolved with advancing civilizations, 
but educational progress has been slow, and the lines 
of progress have been zigzag. When the schools of 



HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. 5 

a people are at their best, we call the period the 
golden age. Plato taught during the golden age of 
Athens, and Quintilian instructed during the golden 
age of Eome. A people may have a golden age, but 
the golden age of the race will always be in the future, 
and school evolution will go on as long as civilization 
continues to advance. 

In School Evolution the Ideal gets to be the EeaL — 
All progress comes of ideals which are in advance of 
reals. Brutes make no progress, for they create no 
ideals. Individuals and peoples with low ideals, or 
who look back, retrograde or merely mark time. Sav- 
age tribes look back, and so " mark time." Unpro- 
gressive peoples like the Chinese worship their an- 
cestors, and so fail to make progress. Luther, when 
he reached the meridian of life, ceased to reform be- 
cause he began to look back. Peoples and institutions 
and individuals make progress so long as their out- 
look is forward and upward. The best is still in the 
future. The disciples of Jesus look forward and 
move forward. At eighty, Gladstone still looked 
forward and still led the armies of progress. The 
old education looks back and marks time, but the new 
education looks forward and moves upward. 

The School at its Best is our School Ideal. — School 
evolution comes of the efforts of the people to realize 
their educational ideals. The educator is not an icon- 
oclast, but a reformer. Kousseau, the prince of an- 
archists, was not an educator. He planned to destroy 
all human institutions and go back to ISTature. But 
Kousseau was a world benefactor, for he broke fetters, 
cleared away a world of rubbish, and inspired educa- 



6 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

tional reform. Bacon gave the golden rule, " Make a 
stand on the ancient way and look to iind the best 
way." Pestalozzi pursuing the Baconian plan, gave 
the world How Gertrude Taught her Children, 
and became the father of the new education. We 
begin educational reforms by elevating the school 
ideal, and by managing to have the real grow into the 
ideal. We learn wisdom even from the serpent, for 
as the serpent sheds the old skin in forming the new, 
so we seek to have the old education grow into the 
new. School evolution is perennial. The new edu- 
cation of to-day becomes the old education of to-mor- 
row. We shall continue through the centuries to ap- 
proach our growing ideal, " The school at its best." 

Pupil Study is the Greatest Thing in the New Edu- 
cation. — Higher ideals of pupil possibilities are condi- 
tions of pupil betterment. What is the pupil now ? 
What is he capable of becoming ? Our pupil ideal is 
the pupil with all his possibilities developing into the 
best manhood. We think of teaching as the process 
of promoting the growth of the real pupil into the 
realization of our ideal. As the inventor realizes his 
ideal in his electric motor, so the teacher realizes his 
ideal in the lives of his pupils. We see in the pupil 
all human possibilities. Our educational ideal is man 
at his best. Teacher and parents, inspired by high 
ideals, work earnestly for pupil perfection. 

The Prepared Teacher is the Vital Factor in the 
New Education. — Plato and his peerless pupil consti- 
tuted the greatest university of antiquity. Garfield's 
conception of the elemental university was President 
Hopkins on one end of a log and himself on the 



HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. Y 

Other. The pupil and the teacher working together 
to develop power tlirough mastery constitute the 
schooL The vital contact of pupil mind and teacher 
mind works the miracle of pupil growth. Pupil effort, 
stimulated and guided by the teacher, educates. The 
oneness of the school life comes of the teacher brood- 
ing over the pupil, and of pupil and teacher strug- 
gling together for mastery. As iron shapes iron, so 
the vital contact of pupil mind and teacher mind de- 
velops power, and leads on to sturdy scholarship. As 
pupil improvement comes of teacher fitness, school 
management exalts teacher preparation. 

Higher Teacher Ideals will lead to Teacher Excel- 
lence. — Even at the beginning of the nineteenth cen- 
tury the teacher ideal of the masses was low indeed, 
and the teacher counted for little. But as education 
has advanced, the teacher ideal has become higher and 
higher. The elevation of the teacher ideal, and with 
its growth the demand for better and better teaching, 
is one of the marvels of the century. It has led the 
states and the nations to provide professional schools, 
professional literature, and professional associations 
for the improvement of teachers. Teacher, what is 
your teacher ideal ? I know you have been observing 
and wondering. You have been thinking about the 
best things in the lives of the teachers you have 
known. You have been thinking about the eminent 
teachers that have blessed the race. You have been 
thinking about the Great Teacher. Somehow your 
ideal teacher comes to embrace all teacher excellencies. 
You yearn to become such a teacher. You can in 
some degree. Your efforts to realize in yourself your 



8 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

teacher ideal will make of you a better teacher. But 
keep in mind that the teacher consecrates his life to 
pnpil betterment. You think not of self nor of fame 
nor of fortune, but rather of how to lead your pupils 
to make most of themselves. Man lives for man. 

The Best School Helps characterize the New Edu- 
cation. — We marvel at the destitution of the past in 
school helps. We wonder at the destitution in school 
helps even in the recent past. Anything was thought 
to be good enough for children. The wretched make- 
shifts, still all too common, tell of low ideals and of 
much lamentable stupidity. Even now, at the dawn 
of the twentieth century, vastly better provisions are 
made for the improvement of fine horses than for the 
improvement of children. We visit a thousand good 
schools, and fail to find even one having the best 
facilities for the best school work. But, when the 
world comes to realize that nothing is too good for 
children, the people will gladly supply the best school 
helps. Wiser ideas and more exalted ideals will lead 
up to better and better realities. ^N^othing is too good 
for the child. 

Better School Organization makes for School Im- 
provement. — The old-time school was a mob rather 
than an army. Schools were isolated and unorgan- 
ized. The nations had not thought of school sys- 
tems or of graded schools. School organization is 
the child of the nineteenth century, the century of 
greatest educational progress. We classify and grade 
and specialize. We group schools into organic units. 
We create school systems. The educational chaos of 
the centuries left the masses to grope their way in tlie 



HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. 9 

darkness. Our school organizations, crude as they 
are, must be largely credited with greatly promoting 
the world's marvellous educational progress. As we 
advance we study to improve school organization. 
Each teacher does well to create an ideal school sys- 
tem, embodying the best things thought out and 
worked out by mankind. We should spare no effort 
in promoting the growth of our actual into our ideal 
school organization. 

School Improvement comes of Educative School Gov- 
ernment. — Froebel and Herbart sounded the keynote 
of school improvement — " Educate the whole man, 
placing the emphasis on conduct and culture." Char- 
acter-growing is the educational superlative. We now 
think of school management as the art of promoting 
good conduct. The movement in the direction of 
better school government is almost revolutionary. 
We are beginning to know the child, and are learn- 
ing to lead our pupils through right motives to right 
conduct. We govern up to self-government and con- 
trol up to self-control. In concrete conduct lessons 
we lead our pupils to form high conduct ideals. We 
try to so manage that all school work may foster good 
conduct. 

School Management is the Art of vitalizing the 
School Programme. — The school works in the living 
present and its programme is a living thing. Last 
year's programme grows into this year's. The school 
programme keeps abreast of the times. As we gain 
a deeper insight into pupil nature and as the realm of 
knowledge increases we modify our school courses. 
Looking back means death and bars progress. Some 



10 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

of the old unprogressive universities boast of having 
adhered for many centuries to the same dead curricu- 
lum. The Chinese are unprogressive, and hence it 
is fitting that their school courses should be fixed. 
Among progressive peoples the growth of the school 
programme must go on forever. 

We create an Ideal School and work to make it 
Real. — Teachers, of all men, you and your fellow- 
workers alone devote yourselves exclusively to school 
improvement. I venture to ask you to create as a 
working model an ideal school having the best school 
helps. You will visit the best schools ; you will read 
the best things ; you will consult the best educators ; 
you will think and imagine and invent and experi- 
ment. Your ideal grows and grows, and becomes a 
thing of beauty as well as utility. Your school en- 
vironments are the universe, for all things on the 
earth and in the heavens are school helps. Your school 
grounds abound in educative devices and elevating in- 
fluences. Your schoolhouse, with its furniture, and 
its provisions for pure air and heat and light and ex- 
ercise and school work, is indeed a model. Your ap- 
paratus, laboratory, and library are the best now avail- 
able. As you work on through the years to make 
your ideal school a reality, you will wonder at the 
continual growth of your ideal. The best yesterday 
gives place to the better of to-day. Your success edu- 
cates the people, inspires other teachers, and, above 
all, doubles your power to help your pupils. 

School Improvement comes of Good Teaching. — The 
old schoolmaster groped his way, for he had not stud- 
ied effectively either himself or the pupil. He was 



HIGHER EDUCATIONAL IDEALS. H 

profoundly ignorant of the laws of growth, and could 
not do otherwise than blunder on in the dark. The 
modern teacher knows himself, knows the pupil, 
knows the subject. He studies to lead his pupils to 
so put forth effort as to develop power in gaining 
mastery. He trains his pupils to investigate and find 
out for themselves. He manages to create and sus- 
tain interest, thus securing systematic and effective 
work. Good teaching is ultimate. In all his teaching 
the teacher studies to induce good conduct. The art 
of school management culminates in good teaching. 

Pupils must be led to form High Ideals. — We do 
most for our pupils when we lead them to create and 
try to realize ennobling ideals. Low and debasing 
ideals are the bane of mankind. It is the mission of 
the school to elevate the race by inducing pupils to 
form higher ideals. The church and the school work 
together to lift up the pupils through the purest and 
highest ideals. The story, the biographical history 
lessons, the school library, school government, and, 
indeed, all good school work, tend to foster the forma- 
tion of helpful ideals. 

The People must be induced to form Higher Educa- 
tional Ideals. — Our people are sovereigns, and we can 
elevate our schools only as we elevate public opinion. 
This must be done largely through the school. 
Pupils influence parents. The library, and the best 
periodicals, and the reading clubs, and the literary 
societies wonderfully help. Good lectures are invalu- 
able. The semi-annual educational sermons of all the 
ministers are powerful for good. The newspaper con- 
tributes to fostering high school ideals. The teacher 



12 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

works tlirongli all these agencies to create a healthy 
public sentiment in favour of sustaining the best 
schools and of making all schools better. 

The Ideal Teacher — who can describe such a One ? 
— Jesus is the perfect teacher. Through the ages 
great teachers have done what they could to lead the 
race upward. A host of mighty teachers are now 
educating the world. Our ideal teacher embodies the 
best in all. Friend, you earnestly desire to become 
an efficient teacher. You have a high ideal which 
you are seeking to realize. You are striving to be 
what you wish your pupils to become. You are 
studying to know well yourself, your pupils, and 
your subjects. You are learning to get close to your 
pupils and to quicken all their energies. As their 
friend, you are learning to lead your pupils wisely. 
More and more you are coming to realize your ideaL 
Slowly you are struggling up to higher heights, and 
are becoming a worthy teacher. To you, school man- 
agement and teaching are becoming the arts of lead- 
ing pupils up to a grand manhood. 



CHAPTER 11. 

PUPIL IMPROVEIMENT THROUGH HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 

School Management is the Art of Pupil Betterment. — 

Improvement of the pupil is the central idea. School 
systems are created and school courses are planned ; 
school methods are devised and school facilities are 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 13 

provided ; professional schools are created and teach- 
ers are sustained to promote pupil well-being. Will 
this benefit the pupil ? The answer must be the test 
of every proposed school measure. Is it the best for 
the pupil ? The answer must determine the continu- 
ance, the modification, or the disuse of any existing 
school condition. God drafts the plan of each life. 
Education is the working out of the divine plan. 
Teaching is leading the pupil to make the most of 
himself. 

Pupil Study is FundamentaL — The twin arts of 
school management and teaching are based on insight 
into pupil nature. Know your pupils, is a pedagog- 
ical imperative. As the botanist knows the growing 
plant, so must the teacher know the growing pupil. 
Since it is guided self-effort that educates, the teacher 
must know the springs of action and the laws of 
growth. Since teaching is leading, the teacher must 
be the pupil's wise friend. Since self-knowledge is 
the key to pupil insight, the teacher must know him- 
self and must learn to look at the pupil as just a 
younger self. Pupil study, now and always, is the 
greatest thing in education. 

Neglect of Childhood is the Sad Story of our Race. — 
Through many centuries real child study was not 
thought of. The human animal grew up like other 
animals. Repression and force were almost universal. 
Among ancient peoples only the Greeks studied the 
young, and so developed a race of mighty thinkers ; 
only the Hebrews taught their children righteousness. 
Neglect of the young was the world rule. "What a 
change has come! JSTow child study and ways of 



14 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

promoting child well-being are the world's chiefest 
interests. 

Pupil Study is of Untold Value to Teachers. 

" The cRief value of child study seems to lie in two directions : 
(1) It arouses the teacher to examine and study the mental states 
of the children before her. This may be called its subjective 
value. (2) It will in time furnish us with a series of conclusions 
that will be of practical value in guiding teachers in the arrange- 
ment of courses of study, methods of instruction, hygienic and 
sanitary surroundings of school life, etc. This may be called its 
objective value." — [Nicholas Murray Butler.] 

" Child study brings the teacher into closer rapport with the 
pupil and establishes that personal bond which brings out the 
power of the teacher, and especially of a woman teacher. Man 
may and can run the school as a machine. His voice, physical 
strength, and character give him the advantage under present 
methods. When teaching is a work of love — to know children 
measures the love for them — the woman's kingdom will come in 
the schoolroom." — [Gr. Stanley Hall.] 

*' The chief value of child study, to my mind, is to enable the 
teacher to diagnose the personality of the child, to know some- 
thing of the child's body, mind, and soul. The chief value at 
present of this diagnosis is to find out children who have defects 
in hearing, seeing, or in their motor activities. In other words, 
the chief value of child study is to call the teacher's attention 
away from ' word cram ' to the child himself. It should follow, 
then, that if the teacher studies the child she should apply the 
best conditions for the child's growth." — [Francis W. Parker.] 

A Plan for Infant Study. 

" Suffer the Little Ones to come unto Me." — This is 
the keynote of human progress. It remained for 
Jesus to found the new education on the appreciation 
of infant possibilities. " Of such is the kingdom of 
heaven." It remained for Pestalozzi and Froebel 
and Herbart and their successors to take up the cry 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 15 

of Jesus and give the world the kindergarten and the 
primary schooL It still remains for the mighty army 
of educators to profoundly study pupil nature in its 
advanced phases, and give the world the ideal inter- 
mediate school, the ideal high school, and the ideal 
college. 

Study the Real Child. — How may the teacher best 
study the pupil ? Any plan of child study that gives 
insight into the nature of the growing pupil will 
prove helpful. The essential thing is actual study 
of the pupil. You need to study the real child. You 
must study the little one while it is happy in its play 
or work and wholly unconscious of such study. You 
must study your pupils when absorbed in play and les- 
sons. As your aim is pupil knowledge rather than 
science, you keep the recording angel out of sight. 
Later on you may make contributions to scientific 
child study. You investigate for yourself in your 
own way, but welcome helpful suggestions. The fol- 
lowing general plan, to be supplemented by your 
special method of child study, is believed to be safe 
and efiicient : 

What is the Infant ? — The budding stage of human 
growth, from birth to the sixth year, is termed in- 
fancy. You will make your studies of some baby 
friend and live close to it during these marvellous 
years. You will drink at the fountain. Your own 
sympathies and intuitions are your best guides. In- 
telligent mothers work nearest to God and are your 
wisest counsellors. Your fellow-teachers, who like 
yourself are studying infant nature, w^ill suggest the 
freshest things. You find the kindergarten circle an 



16 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

iDspiration. Some good books, revealing the wonders 
experienced by scientific observers, will prove help- 
ful.* Current kindergarten literature will prove high- 
ly suggestive, t 

The Precious Half Hours spent with your Baby Friend 
help most.— You gain the rarest treasures by direct in- 
sight. 'No theories or cumbersome methods or trouble- 
some notes embarrass you. You come into touch with 
the life of an embryo self. All its buddings intensely 
interest you. How does the little one learn to walk, 
to talk, to do things, to know things ? You observe 
with delight that your little friend grows through self- 
effort, and that from month to month it perceives bet- 
ter, remembers better, and does things better. You 
find surprises and poetry at every step. You never 
grow weary in comparing your baby friend with other 
infants. Heredity opens to you a world of marvels. 
Evolution takes on new meaning as you indulge a lit- 
tle in comparative psychology. Then you discover, 
it may be, a striking resemblance between the earliest 
race development and the development of your infant 
friend. Thus you come to understand in some degree 
infancy, and learn to answer reasonably well the ques- 
tion, " What is the infant ? " 

A Plan for Child Study. 

What is the Child ? — The fanciful, trustful stage of 
pupil growth, from the sixth to the tenth year, is 
termed childhood. How may you best study the 

* Preyer's Infant Mind : D. Appleton & Co. 

f Symbolic Education, Susan E. Blow : D. Appleton & Co. 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 17 

child ? Consider various plans, and then pursue your 
own plan. Recall as best you can your own child- 
hood experiences. Rely most on your own insight. 
You will have a special child friend witii whom you 
will spend one or two precious half hours each week. 
Comparing your infant and your child friends, you 
gain skill in estimating mental growth. The increase 
in physical and mental and moral vigour is a constant 
surprise to you. Then you find delight in comparing 
the growth of your child friend with the childhood 
stage of race develo23ment. Your interviews with 
your fellow-students engaged in child study are in- 
spiring and suggestive. Your primary circle secures 
systematic study. You find child literature wonder- 
fully helpful. You select as helps one or more of the 
many good books which treat of the child and child 
education. 

You study for yourself a Ileal Child. — Trusting most 
to your own insight and your own sympathies, you 
constantly put yourself in the place of the child and 
live its life. More and more you come to understand 
the child. The study of your child friend fits you to 
enter into the lives of all children. Indeed, each pupil 
becomes to you a child friend. Every hour spent 
with your pupils enriches you. Knowing your pupils, 
knowing their individual wants and ways, you become 
an intelligent child leader. You get to understand 
childhood, and become prepared to answer with some 
satisfaction the question, " What is the child ? " You 
win the hearts of the little ones, and so make the pri- 
mary school work a constant joy. 



18 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

A Plan for studying the Boy and Girl. 

"What is the Boy? — The exploring, the imitative, 
the habit-forming stage of growth, from the tenth to 
tlie fourteenth year, is termed boyhood and girlhood. 
Coming between childhood and youth, this is desig- 
nated as the intermediate culture period. The burn- 
ing desire to find out, the restless activity, the aston- 
ishing imitative tendencies, make this pre-eminently 
the exploring and habit-forming stage of development. 
How are we to get to understand the intermediate 
pupil? "VV^e begin by vividly recalling our own ex- 
periences during this period. 

You spend Precious Hours with your Boy or Girl 
Friend. — You live close to your young friend — study- 
ing, reading, playing, exploring with him. You lead 
him to talk with you about the things which most in- 
terest him. You observe him in his associations with 
others. You compare his activities with infant activi- 
ties and with child activities, and marvel at the growth. 
You compare your friend with other boys and girls, 
and somehow you come to look upon each pupil as a 
special friend. You never weary of tracing resem- 
blances between the growth of your boy friend and 
the boyhood stage of race growth. You interview 
teachers who are earnestly studying the intermediate 
phase of pupil growth. You read the choicest juve- 
nile literature, and study one or more suggestive books 
treating of boy and girl growth and culture. You 
gain inspiration at your intermediate circle for pupil 
study. Thus you come to know reasonably well your 
boy or girl friend, and so begin to understand all boys 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 19 

and girls. Thus you become able to answer with con- 
siderable satisfaction the question, '' What is the boy ? " 
You somehow manage to make each boy and each 
girl your friend, and so make the school work a con- 
stant delight. 

A Plan for studying- Youth. 

What is the Youth ? — The restless, formative stage 
of pupil growth from the fourteenth to the eighteenth 
year is termed youth. About the beginning of this 
period there is almost a leap in both physical and 
mental growth. Irrepressible yearnings for great 
things begin to sway the youth. Egoism begins to 
give place to altruism. Duty impulses become com- 
mands. The imitative activities of the boy become 
the creative activities of the youth. Will asserts its 
sovereignty, and the youth must do or die ; action is 
salvation. During these restless years life ideals are 
formed, and the trend is given that leads on to excel- 
lency. How may we with greatest profit study our 
high-school pupils? The wise teacher will continue 
to study the individual pupil. You make some youth 
your special friend and companion and spend with 
him one or two hours each week. You have learned 
to put yourself in the place of the infant, the child, 
the boy. Your youthful days are readily recalled. 
You find it easy to put yourself in the place of your 
new friend, and thus you come to understand him. 
You converse with him, read with him, investigate 
with him, sympathize with him in his hopes and fears, 
in his joys and sorrows. You compare him with 
other youths and with your younger friends. You 



20 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

observe liim in his daily work and in his association 
with others. You read the best books treating of 
youth culture. You spend an hour each week in your 
high-school circle, consecrated to the study of youth. 
Thus your high-school pupils become an open book 
to you, and you can for yourself give an intelligent 
answer to the question, " What is the youth ? " 

A Plan for studying Manhood. 

What is the Young Man? — The differentiating, 
crowning stage of pupil growth is termed young man- 
hood. We include in this period college and uni- 
versity life. From eighteen to twenty-five we think 
of the pupil as a young man or a young woman. 
Pupil life closes with this period. The college stands 
for the highest stage of school culture. How may 
the teacher best study the student ? Self-knowledge 
is the key. You think of the student as another self, 
only a little less matured. Your memories of your 
own student life are fresh, and you find it easy to 
put yourself in the place of the student. In our 
times young men and young w^omen act important 
parts in all measures of reform. You work with 
them in these endeavours and form close and beautiful 
friendships. You are one with the students in origi- 
nal research. You study with them literature, and 
psychology, and ethics, and sociology, and philosophy. 
Then you find the meeting of your Student Study 
Circle invigorating and helpful. You get to under- 
stand the student, and find yourself prepared to answer 
with a degree of satisfaction the question, " What is 
the young man ? " 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 21 

What is the Man? — The working stage of human 
growth is termed manhood. It extends from the 
twenty-fifth year to the end of life. The Humboldts 
and Gladstones have measurably abolished old age. 
We do not think of the man as a pupil. In the 
school of life a man no longer needs a guide ; he 
works out his own salvation. Does the teacher need 
to study the man ? Yes, you must become acquainted 
with human life from the cradle to the grave. Biog- 
raphy and sociology and literature and philosophy 
and history are manhood studies. You need to study 
the growing self in all the stages of development, that 
you may become accustomed to think of a life as a 
whole. In converse with your bosom friends you 
gain deeper insight into human nature, and come to 
understand all men. You mingle with the world's 
workers, and feel the mighty impulses that affect man- 
kind. Biography and history and literature and soci- 
ology and philosophy become living realities, and you 
realize the past in the present. 

We study the Pupil as a Physical Being. 

Mental Betterment depends on Physical Betterment. 

— The teacher profoundly studies the phj^sical con- 
ditions of growth. The self lives in and works 
through a material body with material environments. 
The teacher must know more than the physician, for 
to develop a vigorous physical manhood is a greater 
work than to heal disease. The teacher studies to 
command the best hygienic conditions, and to lead 
pupils to form the best hygienic habits. Thus is laid 
the foundation for a vigorous manhood. 



22 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The ability of a Pupil to do School Work is meas- 
ured by his Physical Strength. — This law demands far- 
reacliing reforms in scliool management and in teach- 
ing. The teacher must study the physical as well as 
the mental abilities of the learner, and adapt the 
work. Most pupils can profitably do the average 
work ; some can safely do more ; while a few are 
physically unfit to do the work of the class. Science 
in the near future will doubtless give us easy rules of 
measurement to determine, in some degree, classifica- 
tion and management and methods ; but most must 
depend on the insight of the teacher. Good common 
sense must supplement all tests. - 

Vision is tested. — Defective vision is fearfully 
prevalent. Probably one fourth of our pupils suffer 
in some degree from impaired sight. The teacher, 
trained to test the senses, tests the eyes of each pupil. 
Those suffering from defective vision are seated with 
reference to the light. When deemed advisable, parents 
are requested to consult an oculist, and secure when 
necessary properly fitted glasses. Great suffering and 
irreparable loss are thus prevented. The teacher studies 
to prevent as well as to remedy defective vision. 

Hearing is tested. — Probably one pupil in five 
suffers from defective hearing. The teacher tests the 
ears of each pupil. Defectives are given favourable 
positions. Parents are urged to consult a specialist. 
How many cases of suffering and of stunted lives may 
be prevented by these simple tests ! The teacher lives 
close to the pupil, and finds out and seeks to remedy 
physical defects. Physical culture goes on side by 
side with mental culture and moral culture. 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 23 

We study the Pupil as a Self. 

What goes on in the Pupil's Mind ? — Not to know, 
is to confess unfitness for teaching. As the botanist 
studies plants in their properties, so the teacher studies 
tlie pupils in their activities. Pupil activities are to 
the teacher what the scale is to the musician. The 
study of pupil activities, pupil growth, pupil processes, 
and pupil motives does most to prepare teachers for 
their work. All other plans and devices must be 
made auxiliaries. These studies keep the teacher face 
to face with mental life. 

Each Self is a Type of all Selves. — You are conscious 
of perceiving, apperceiving, and representing ; of feel- 
ing self-emotions, social emotions, and emotions of the 
true, the beautiful, the good ; of attending, determin- 
ing, and executing. You think of the pupil as an- 
other self, doing feebly what you do vigorously. 
What goes on in your mind goes on in the pupil's 
mind. The elemental soul activities are ever the 
same ; each self is a type of all selves. Thus it is that 
you are able to understand and to lead your pupils. 

He who knows himself knows all Men. — The only 
road to pupil knowledge is self-knowledge. Self- 
knowledge is the key to all knowledge. You experi- 
ence all soul activities. You look within and actually 
see yourself thinking and admiring and resolving. 
"With a living teacher you study an easy psychology, 
and learn to describe and explain the phenomena of 
mental life. You study experimentally the inter- 
action between a self and his organism. You study 
the larofer self in historv and literature and life, and 



24 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

become rich in the race experience. You marvel how 
the mists begin to clear away, giving you clear insight 
into what goes on in the minds of your pupils. 

Methods of Pupil Study. 

Adopt some Plan for Pupil Study. — The essential 
thing is real child study. Any plan that leads teachers 
to observe children and to gain insight into pupil na- 
ture does good. You observe for yourself and also 
study suggestive books and journals and plans for 
child study. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, the acknowledged 
leader, presents extremely valuable as well as practical 
plans for pupil study. Col. F. W. Parker has done 
much to make all teachers original investigators in the 
study of the child. Prof. Earl Barnes has worked 
out valuable plans of pupil study on the side of morals. 
His suggestions for methods of studying children are 
golden. Our educational literature is already rich in 
plans for pupil study. The presentations at our edu- 
cational associations and in our summer normals and 
in our child study circles are fresh, suggestive, in- 
spiring. The young teacher is in danger from tlie 
very abundance of good things. You will do well to 
ponder long before adopting a plan for systematic 
pupil study. What will most benefit yourself and 
your pupils ? Kemember that David with his crude 
slinsr was far more efficient than David in Saul's elab- 
orate armour. 

Methods of studying Children.^ — " Whatever suc- 
cess has attended educational efforts in the past has 



* Prof. Earl Barnes, Studies in Education. 



HELPFUL PUPIL STUDY. 25 

been due to the direct or the indirect study of human 
nature. The newness of the movement of the last ten 
years consists in the fact that this study has become 
self-conscious ; that it concerns itself with the indi- 
vidual during the period of childhood and youth ; 
and that it uses, to some extent, the methods of mod- 
ern inductive science. Cliild study is at present 
largely an applied science ; it has to-day the same re- 
lation to psychology that horticulture has to botany. 

" Practically, in onr real w^ork with children we 
probably draw more upon our memories for an inter- 
pretation of their acts than upon any knowledge we 
have gained through the study of other children. In 
our own w^ork we have found no method more useful 
for students and teachers who wish to understand 
children than that of carefully writing out their ow^n 
memories along vital and definite lines. 

" All strong advance in science has so far been made 
through the direct study of reality, and probably one 
comes nearest to the reality with which education 
deals w^hen he stands in the immediate presence of a 
child. Direct studies on individual children must 
give us whatever of final knowledge we achieve con- 
cerning children. When we come to apply the same 
skill and honesty to the study of the natural history 
of childhood that w^e now devote to botany and 
zoology, we shall make great progress in our treatment 
of children. 

"The seating and lighting of buildings, the ar- 
rangement of programmes, the making of text-books, 
the assigning of lessons, all the problems of discipline, 
and, still more, the determining of each individual's 



26 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

personal qualities against this background of averages 
— all this makes the demand for such studies im- 
perative. 

" If a man goes about his daily work with his eyes 
and his heart open ; if he lives over his childhood's 
life, with an honest desire to see what kind of a child 
he was and what kind of a man he is, quickening his 
memory with childish records and autobiography ; if 
he studies children under carefully arranged condi- 
tions, bringing the same fair-mindedness and persist- 
ence to his work that the scientist brings to his labo- 
ratory ; and if he brings all these scattered studies 
into their due relations by setting them in the back- 
ground of general law, based on large quantitative 
studies, he will accomplish all that he can reasonably 
hope for in these days of beginnings." 



CHAPTER III. 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE PUPIL THROUGH IMPROVEMENT 
OF THE TEACHER. 

We think of the Teacher as an Educator. — The 
teacher, like the poet, is made as well as born. The 
most gifted teachers are the hardest workers, and 
work develops power. The purpose of the school is 
educative, and the teacher is pre-eminently the edu- 
cator. Educational conditions and facilities are im- 
portant, but the teacher is the vital force. All good 
comes through lawful self-effort, but it is the teacher 



IMPROVEMENT OP THE TEACHER. 27 

who leads his pupils to do their best in the best way. 
We lead our pupils to make most of themselves. The 
teacher is the pupils' model as he gets closest to them 
and stands for the best in their young lives. He is 
the pupils' instructor, and he leads them step by step 
to master the realms of knowledge. He is the pupil's 
guide, as he manages to have them so put forth effort 
as to develop power. He is the leader, for he leads 
pupils on in their efforts to attain. He is the pupils' 
friend, for he studies the well-being of learners and 
awakens in them all ennobling impulses and aspira- 
tions. Improvement of the teacher is the greatest of 
all benefactions, for it means the uplifting of all men. 

Profession of Teaching. 

Teaching is a Profession. — The advancement of the 
teaching profession will do most to promote teacher 
improvement. At the extremes, even now, the teach- 
ing profession stands among the first. Ivindergart- 
ners are professional teachers, as are the faculties of 
our colleo:es and universities. But our teachers in 
our elementary and secondary schools as a class are 
still semi-professional and non-professional. For the 
improvement of teachers, the transformation of the 
great body of instructors into professional teachers is 
an educational desideratum. To this end, tenure of 
office, adequate salaries, specialization, teaching as a 
career, and teacher culture are essential conditions. 

1. Permanency is Fundamental. — Competent and 
tried teachers should hold positions during efficient 
service. The civil service reform should certainly in- 
clude teachers. I^o other economic blunder so tends 



28 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

to deprive the teaching ranks of the most gifted teach- 
ers, or to so discourage thorough preparation for 
teaching, as the uncertain tenure of office. Extending 
the civil service reform to teachers will do most of all 
to make teaching a profession. We can scarcely con- 
ceive of the wearing anxiety and the eating worry 
which teachers suffer on account of annual elections. 
It is simply barbarous. 

2. Adequate Salaries are Essential. — The fact that 
the salaries of our teachers have been quadrupled 
during the closing half of the nineteenth century is 
highly encouraging. Many educators now get as 
large salaries as the judiciary, as the ministry, as the 
State officers. The best positions now pay salaries of 
$5,000 and $10,000, and even $15,000. But the 
average pay of our teachers is far below that of our 
lawyers and doctors and business men. Indeed, the 
salaries of the great body of our teachers are shame- 
fully inadequate. Teaching demands the best talent, 
the most thorough preparation, and the means for 
constant growth. Generous salaries will work like 
magic in the promotion of teacher betterment, and in 
transforming the trade of teaching into the profession 
of teaching. 

3. Specialization is Cardinal. — Concentration is es- 
sential to the highest efficiency. The crudeness of 
very much of our school work comes of our failure 
to utilize specialization in teaching. The kindergart- 
ner and the college professor are specialists, and 
hence our kindergartens and our colleges are marvels 
of efficiency. Our best primary teachers, like our 
kindergartners, are becoming specialists in child cul- 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHER. 29 

tore. It is believed that in the near future each high- 
school teacher and each intermediate teacher will be 
a specialist, and hence a professional teacher. Even 
rural teachers will come to be specialists in ungraded 
school work. Specialization enables the teacher to 
become an educational artist, thus greatly elevating 
the teaching profession and wonderfully improving 
our schools. 

4. Teaching must be made an Inviting Career. — 
Teaching must offer desirable careers in order to en- 
list the most gifted. As the century closes, it is safe 
to say that no better field of human achievement is 
open to our young men and women than the high- 
er education. In no other profession is promotion 
speedier or the reward surer. ]^o other career gives 
higher satisfaction or commands greater respect or 
develops a grander manhood. College presidents 
take rank with governors, and college professors and 
city superintendents take rank with authors and states- 
men. But to the rank and file of the mighty army 
of teachers, teaching can not yet be considered an in- 
viting career. True, a marvellous change has taken 
place. In the past, history and literature exhibit the 
pedagogue as the butt of ridicule ; now the teacher 
stands for the best in his community. 'No other offi- 
cer of the State gets so near to the people or does so 
much for human elevation. But as a life career, the 
outlook for the mass of our teachers is not cheering. 
Positions are still precarious, and salaries are still 
pinchingly small. Worst of all is the hopelessness as 
to merited promotion. Teacher betterment demands 
such measures as will multiply desirable positions 



30 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

and make merited promotion reasonably certain. 
Then we may hope to see large numbers of our gifted 
youths select teaching as a profession and thoroughly 
prepare themselves for the work. Then, like lawyers, 
teachers will be content to begin at the bottom and 
work up. The certainty of success through merit 
will inspire heroic effort, and lead the teacher to be- 
come an educational artist and a power for good. 

5. Teaching must be made a Learned Profession. — 
The prepared teacher is the world's great want. As 
the nineteenth century closes, it is humiliating to be 
compelled to say that of our four hundred thousand 
American teachers scarcely one third are well pre- 
pared for their work. A majority of our teachers 
are deficient in culture and in professional education. 
Many even of our college and university professors 
do not know how^ to teach. But the star is shining in 
the east. Our universities are creating departments 
of education side by side with the departments of law 
and medicine. All the States now sustain systems of. 
normal schools. Summer normals with their quick- 
ening influences now reach all teachers. Teaching is 
rapidly becoming a profession, and we must make it 
in truth a learned profession. The teacher must stand 

for culture. 

The Ideal Teacher. 

"We think of the ideal teacher as gifted, as skilled, 
as cultured, as devoted, as progressive. How are we 
to produce such teachers ? How are we to fill our 
schools with such artists ? 

1. The World wants Gifted Teachers. — Since the 
teacher is the pupil model, the pupil leader, the pupil 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHER. 31 

inspirer, he must be superior phj^sically, mentally, 
morally. Only gifted men and women should become 
teachers. Youths who manifest teaching abilities 
should be encouraged to choose teaching as a profes- 
sion. Philip thanked the gods that his son could have 
Aristotle for his teacher. All parents do well to be 
supremely thankful that their children may have gift- 
ed teachers. Surely the world should encourage gifted 
yoLiths to devote their lives to teaching. Surely the 
most gifted should elect teaching as a profession. 

2. Culture characterizes our Ideal Teacher. — Cul- 
ture conditions good teaching. Culture means the 
development of character and of taste as well as the 
attainment of scholarship. Our schools and colleges 
stand for culture. At the dawn of the twentieth cen- 
tury it is safe and reasonable to require that our ele- 
mentary teachers shall be high-school and normal- 
school graduates, and that our high-school teachers shall 
be trained college graduates. This reasonable require- 
ment will give us cultured teachers. Such teachers 
will command respect and will be called to leadership. 
Teaching will be recognised as a learned profession. 

3. Professional Preparation is Essential. — In the 
new education the twin arts of school management 
and teaching are based on the science of education. 
The prepared teacher works in the light of the edu- 
cational thought and experience of all the ages. In 
the old education there was no real basis. The old 
schoolmaster, ignorant of pupil nature, of educational 
law, and of educational economy, literally groped his 
way. His many legitimate successors in our schools 
and colleges blunder on in well-worn ruts. 



32 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The creation of professional schools for the pro- 
fessional education of teachers emphasizes the essen- 
tial characteristic of the new education. Scholarship 
is one thing, and skill in teaching and school manage- 
ment is quite another thing. Surely the teacher needs 
to study pupil nature in the light of educational psy- 
chology, and teaching and school management in the 
light of the history and science of education. Surely 
the teacher needs to practise these arts under the 
guidance of skilled educators before assuming the 
weighty responsibilities of the educator. As a legal 
education is made the condition of admission to the 
bar, so should a pedagogical education be made the 
condition of admission to the desk. Nor is the time 
distant when in our own land, as now in other lands, 
persons without a professional preparation for teach- 
ing will be debarred from the brotherhood of teachers. 

4. Like all Artists, the Ideal Teacher is Devoted. — 
Teaching demands consecrated lives, and the entire 
time and energies of the most gifted. Just think of 
the tremendous work the teacher undertakes ; he as- 
sumes the fearful responsibility of leading his pupils 
to make the most of themselves. Other artists think 
of time ; the teacher thinks of eternity as well as time. 
His pupils are to shine brighter than the stars for- 
ever. The teacher spirit is the spirit of devotion and 
consecration, and this is the crowning preparation for 
the work of teaching. Your ideals are high, and you 
feel an irrepressible longing to realize these ideals. 
You intensely love your pupils, and see in them 
boundless possibilities. You feel an intense interest 
in your work, and day by day you strive to do 



IMPROVEMENT OP THE TEACHER. 33 

the most possible for your pupils. The teacher is 
devoted. 

5. The Ideal Teacher is Progressive. — Only growing 
teachers are fit to lead growing pupils. The founder 
of the Oswego l^ormal School, the American Pesta- 
lozzi, Dr. Edward A. Sheldon, has been a leader in 
educational reform for four decades ; yet he introduces 
his latest outline of work with these golden w^ords : 

We do not undertake to say, nor do we presume, that the 
subjects taken up are in all cases the best that might be selected, 
nor that the order of arrangement is in all cases the best possible. 
All that we can say is, that at the present time the scheme pre- 
sented is the one we are following. We have no expectation that 
it will be the same another year ; in fact, our plan is to change 
from time to time. We shall come very far short of our privilege 
and duty if we do not continue to grow in this work, and all 
growth involves change. 

What an admirable object lesson of the spirit of 
the new education and of the progressive teacher ! 

Schools fok Educating Teachees. 

1. Universities sustain Departments of Education. — 

Sir William Petty, in 1647, said, " Education should 
be seriously studied, and should be the business of the 
ablest and best persons." Herbart, early in the cen- 
tury, originated the movement to make pedagogy a 
university study. As with medicine and law, the 
movement has slowly gained momentum, and one by 
one the universities are coming to place the depart- 
ment of education side by side with the departments 
of law and medicine. The course requires four years 
for its completion, but students electing the profession 
of teaching do the first and second years' work as a 
4 



34 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

part of their junior and senior college courses. Then 
two years are devoted to strictly professional work. 
Besides the groundwork, teachers prepare for special 
lines of professional work. 

2. Colleges sustain Chairs of Pedagogy. — Since a 
large proportion of our college graduates elect teach- 
ing, our colleges realize the necessity of providing for 
the professional education of teachers. College grad- 
uates are not recognised as teachers or doctors or 
lawyers. During the junior and senior years students 
electing teaching take pedagogy as a part of the col- 
lege course. An able educator in this position works 
wonders for the students and for the college. Each 
professor comes to give annually a course of lessons 
on methods of teaching his specialty. Graduates may 
complete their professional education in the university, 
or may at once become teachers. 

3. State Normal Schools educate Elementary Teach- 
ers. — Persons who apply for admission are to have 
strong bodies and active minds, and are to be high- 
school graduates. The course embraces three years' 
work. Professional education enters into the warp 
and woof of all the work, but much of the very best 
academic work is done during these years. Culture 
is essential in teacher preparation. It is unfortunate 
that comparatively few normal graduates ever enter 
the college or the universit}^ All educational coun- 
tries now sustain normal schools. These schools give 
us our trained elementary teachers, and each is a cen- 
tre of educational life and progress. Of all school 
agencies, our State normal schools have done most for 
the elevation of our elementary schools. 



IMPROVEMENT OE THE TEACHER. 35 

4. City Training Schools educate City Teachers. — 

Our great cities provide schools for training tlieir 
own teacliers, and limit admission to higli-scliool grad- 
uates. Our high schools and academies in the smaller 
towns find it necessary to give some pedagogical train- 
ing to their graduates who elect teaching. Many 
high schools now give their pupils practice in teach- 
ing in addition to pedagogical instruction. The su- 
perintendent and the high-school principal in our 
towns often give professional instruction to pupils 
who purpose teaching. The importance of special 
preparation for teaching is thus emphasized. 

5. Summer Normal Schools help all Teachers.— 
These are short-term normal schools, continuing from 
two to eight weeks. The purpose is to assist as much 
as possible the great body of untrained teachers, and 
aiford professional teachers special opportunities for 
advancement. These schools supplement but do not 
take the place of the regular professional schools. 
They are doing a vast amount of good work, and are 
wonderfully promoting educational progress. The 
university summer normals afford rare opportunities 
for advanced work in special lines. We have in these 
schools practical university extension. 

6. Thorough Professional Preparation works Teacher 
as well as Pupil Good. — Good positions await prepared 
teachers. Persons who make teaching a trade will 
gradually disappear from our schools. All positions 
will be filled by trained teachers. The preparation 
for teaching demands even more thorough profes- 
sional education than preparation for practising law 
or medicine. For the advanced work in teaching, a 



36 SCPIOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

four years' course is not too long. The teacher thus 
prepared will work in the light of all the ages. To 
him teaching will be truly the art of promoting hu- 
man development. For elementary teaching, the 
three years' course of onr State normal schools is not 
too much. Only high-school graduates will, in the 
near future, be admitted to these schools. Three 
years are devoted to broader culture, to pedagogical 
instruction, and to practise teaching. During the 
second and third years the normal pupils are grouped 
for special lines of scliool work — for rural schools, 
for kindergarten work, for primary work, for inter- 
mediate work. Intermediate teachers are prepared 
to teach special studies. Thus all normal work be- 
comes fruitful in the highest degree because it be- 
comes specialized work. 

7. Professional Schools mean Educational Artists. — 
Educational schools produce teachers skilled in the 
art of producing mental and moral growth, just as 
medical schools produce physicians skilled in the art 
of healing. The teaching art is sui generis. Other 
artists create forms, but the teacher deals with the 
self-forming. Mind is self-acting. Pupil self-effort 
educates. The pupil moulds himself, forms himself, 
learns through his own efforts. Well-directed self- 
effort works its miracle of growth. Teaching is the 
art of stimulating and guiding self-activity. The ar- 
tistic teacher knows how to awaken effort and how to 
wisely direct effort. The meaning of teachers' schools 
is that gifted youths, instructed and trained by skilled 
educators, may through indomitable self-effort become 
educational artists. 



IMPROVEMENT OF THE TEACHER. 



37 



I. 

Higher 
Educa- ^ 

TIONAL 

Ideals 



n. 

Help- 
ful 
Pupil 
Study. 



ni. 

Teach- 
er Im- 
prove- 
ment. 



1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 



1. 
2. 

3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

111. 



IV. 

Better 
School 
Hygi- 
ene. 



f 1. Define 

3. School 
Hygiene. 

3. Home 
Hygiene. 



4. Play 
Hygiene. 



5. Hygienic 
Ventila- 
tion. 



6. Hygienic 
Heating. 



7. Hygienic 
Light. 



8. Cleanli- 
ness and 
Toilet. 

9. Hygienic 
School 
Desks. 



y—i 



10. Hygi- 
enic Hab- 
its. 



11. Interest 
in School 
Hygiene. 



( (1) Hygiene. 
1 (2) School hygiene, 
j (1) In the past. 
( (2) In the present. 

r(l) Importance. 

J (2) School influence. 

1 (3) Mother's society. 

[ (4) Lectures and literature. 

' (1) Play hygienic. 

(2) Play educative. 

(3) Hourly recess. 

(4) Open air best. 

(5) Pliysical culture. 
^ (6) Lunch and play. 

' (1) Perfect ventilation. 

(2) Poor ventilation. 

(3) Window ventilation. 

(4) Ventilating stove. 

(5) Hourly recess. 
'(1) Desideratum. 

(2) Defective heating. 
- (3) Systems of heating. 
I (4) Open fireplace. 
[ (5) Economy of. 
f(l) Perfect lighting. 

(2) Window shades. 

(3) Windows. 

(4) Favour the eyes. 

'(1) Untidiness. 

(2) Importance. 

(3) School closets. 

(4) Cloakrooms. 

'(1) Single desks. 

(2) Adj ustable chair and desk. 

(3) Study desk. 

(4) Reasonable adjustment. 

'(1) Regularity. 

(2) Cleanliness. 

(3) Abundant sleep. 

(4) Rational food habits. 

(5) Good clothing habits. 

(6) Cheerfulness. 
^ (7) Law-abiding habits, 
f (1) Interests all men. 
1 (2) Personal equation. 

(3) Hygienic skill. 

(4) Parental co-operation. 
[ (5) flygienic literature. 



38 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



CHAPTER lY. 

IMPROVEMENT OF THE PUPIL 'THROUGH . THE ADOPTION 
OF A BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 

School Management is the Art of bettering the 
Pupil's Physical Condition. — Light, heat, fresh air, ex- 
ercise, furniture, books, school work, school recrea- 
tion, school government, school programmes, and pupil 
habits demand the utmost consideration, for they are 
the conditions of pupil growth. The rational search 
lights of all the ages are now turned in full blaze upon 
the schoolroom. " Give us whatever tends to best 
promote pupil improvement " is now the world's 
highest note. 

Hygiene is the Art of Health. — Health, like all 
other good things, comes through law-abiding. For- 
tunately, the laws of health are few and plain. Good 
parentage, sunshine and fresh air, good food and 
abundant sleep, cleanliness and exercise, cheerfulness 
and congenial occupation, hygienic habits — these are 
the conditions of good health. For the teacher not 
to study hygienic laws, and not by example and pre- 
cept and training to get pupils to live them, is surely 
criminal. 

School Hygiene is the Art of promoting the Phys- 
ical Well-being of Pupils and Teachers. — Physical bet- 
terment conditions spiritual betterment. A self is 
embodied in a physical organism having physical en- 
vironments. A self acts best when his body with its 
environments is in the best condition. As the race 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 39 

lias come to realize the tremendous importance of 
physical culture, the wisdom and the resources of the 
world have been taxed more and more in the interests 
of practical school hygiene. 

The Woeful K'eglect of School Hygiene. — Some good 
day, we doubt not, the nations will vie with each other 
in their efforts to secure the best possible school 
hygiene. In the past men studied brute hygiene, but 
seemed to have been strangely oblivious to the de- 
mands of human hygiene. Their barns were hygienic 
models, but their schoolhouses were execrable. They 
produced fine horses, while they left their children to 
suffer all the evils of unhygienic school life. 

Even now, at the dawn of the twentieth century, 
stable hygiene seems to be far in advance of school 
hygiene, and the beneficent lessons of scientific school 
sanitation still fail to benefit the masses. Excellent 
sanitation in our schools is still the exception. The 
rule is such wretched school sanitation as to practically 
check the rapid increase of population. 

Pupil Good demands Better Home Hygiene. — This 
must come largely through the school. The lessons 
in physical culture teach the pupils the conditions of 
vigorous health and lead them to form hygienic 
habits. Food, sleep, pure air, cleanliness, clothing, 
are carefully considered. It is marvellous how rapidly 
home life improves when the school life becomes 
practically hygienic. The teacher studies to secure 
home co-operation, carefully guarding against creat- 
ing antagonisms. So much of the physical well-being 
of pupils is dependent on home hygiene that educa- 
tors do well to give special attention to the physical 



40 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

improvement of home life. Yery much may be ac- 
complished by the monthly meetings of mothers and 
teachers, now becoming common. Sensible lectures 
and reasonable hygienic literature supplement the 
work of the school. Home hygiene improves as 
school hygiene grows better. 

Play and Gymnastics. 

Play is eminently Hygienic. — Eecreation makes 
possible the best work. 

The kindergarten, by utilizing play, has made a 
large contribution to the well-being of the race. 
Work fatigues, exhausts the brain cells ; play rests, 
recuperates exhausted brain cells. Play is recreation, 
for it is free, spontaneous activity. It breaks the 
spell of work and care. From infancy to age play is 
a boon to all workers. A self while taking recrea- 
tion relaxes effort and roams fancy free. Thus the 
tired brain is given time to recuperate. A student 
who takes ten minutes' suitable recreation each hour 
will come out ahead of the student who without breaks 
pores over his books hour after hour. The men of 
thought as well as the men of action double their 
efficiency by taking regularly helpful recreation. 

School Work is Educative when Pupils are Fresh. — 
Drudgery hurts, and does not help. All forced ef- 
fort made when the pupil is exhausted is injurious. 
"Work, and then play, is the divine plan. We may 
easily quadruple the educative value of our schools by 
studying to keep pupils fresh. Strong men find re- 
creation a necessity; how much more must immature 
pupils play as well as work, and thus grow. Suitable 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 41 

school plays recreate but do not exhaust. He who 
helps to lead the school world to play wisely deserves 
to be crowned as a benefactor. 

A Recess at the Close of each Hour is the Perfect 
Economy. — The hygienic and educative benefits of the 
hourly recess are incalculable. Young children soon 
become fatigued, and so we make their periods of 
work very brief. The periods of work are length- 
ened as the pupils advance. The fatigue limit is a 
great practical study. Much may be done to keep 
pupils fresh by having easy work follow difficult 
w^ork. Change rests. The song and the story rest. 
But frequent periods of absolute freedom are indis- 
pensable. In the schools of the future, it is believed, 
a recess of ten minutes will be given at the close of 
each hour. 

Play in the Open Air is most Hygienic. — Suitable 
playgrounds w^ith the best play-provoking facilities 
may safely be counted among the most important 
hygienic agencies. All real play is essentially free 
and spontaneous. Yet at no time is wise supervision 
more important than during play. Hurtful plays 
must be discouraged and the most helpful plays fos- 
tered. The teacher feels the play impulses, and so 
guides by suggestion without abridging freedom and 
spontaneity. Well-ventilated, well-lighted, and com- 
modious playrooms for use during inclement weather 
are helpful when the supervision is judicious. How- 
ever great the cost, these playrooms pay largely in in- 
creased pupil vigour. 

Lunch and Play occur together. — Teachers and pu- 
pils, during the half-hour noon recess, eat lunch and 



42 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

indulge in light amusements. The playgronnds are 
used in pleasant weather and the playrooms in in- 
clement weather. This plan has many advantages, 
and works well when the teachers enter into it hearti- 
ly. The hygiene of school lunch for teachers and 
pupils deserves thoughtful study. Probably the least 
hygienic is the plan of having pupils rush home, bolt 
a hearty meal, and rush back again. The desideratum 
is suitable lunch, eaten without haste and followed by 
gentle play. 

Systematic Physical Culture is indispensable. — In 
our best schools physical culture goes on side by side 
with mental and moral culture. Graded physical ex- 
ercises give pleasure, gracefulness, and vigour. Dur- 
ing the pauses pointed suggestions are given in prac- 
tical hygiene. The gynmastic exercises, when adapted 
to the pupils and well managed, are educative as well 
as hygienic. They develop habits of exact obedience, 
train pupils to work in harmony wdth others, and 
give artistic command of the body. Gymnastics re- 
quire considerable will effort, and hence do not take 
the place of the spontaneous plays of the recess. The 
Germans emphasize systematic gymnastics, but neg- 
lect play ; the English exalt play, but neglect sys- 
tematic physical culture ; the Americans and the 
French, after the fashion of the Greeks, emphasize 
both play and gymnastics. 

Schoolroom Ventilation. 

Perfect Ventilation is the Aim. — Pupils and teach- 
ers, in order to do their best, must work in pure air 
at the proper temperature. Perfect ventilation keeps 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 43 

the air within the schoolroom as pure as the air with- 
out, and school hygiene seeks to approximate this 
ideal. Improved systems for ventilating school build- 
ings have accomplished wonders. Our best buildings 
are now fairly well ventilated, but even these await 
immense improvements. 

Most Schoolrooms are Badly Ventilated. — The rule 
is poor ventilation, and good ventilation is the excep- 
tion. In a vast majority of our schoolrooms the ven- 
tilation is execrable. A father called at the school- 
room to see his little daughter. Afterward he said : 
" It makes me sick to think of that odour now, yet for 
hours my child had been breathing that poisonous air. 
The teacher did not know that the air was horrible." 
The author could say the same thing about a thousand 
schoolrooms which he has visited. Yet teacher and 
pupils, even under these conditions, are expected to do 
the best work ! 

Abundance of Pure Air must be secured. — To besin 
with, all schoolrooms must provide for each pupil at 
least twenty-five square feet of floor space and three 
hundred cubic feet of air space. For forty pupils a 
schoolroom thirty by forty by ten feet will meet the 
conditions, but no schoolroom should be less than thir- 
teen feet high. Then the ventilating apparatus must 
provide for regular change of air, so as to afford for 
each pupil each hour thirty-five hundred cubic feet of 
pure air. Great advances have been made, but no 
system of ventilation has proved fully satisfactory. 
School architecture must manao^e to make ventilation, 
heating, and lighting fundamental. In some way the 
best must be made effective in all schools. In the 



44- SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

smaller and inexpensive rural schoolhouses the best 
ventilation and heating is now secured by having in 
each schoolroom a small open fireplace and also a ven- 
tilating stove with well-constructed ventilating flues. 
This arrangement, with judicious window ventilation, 
and by having a recess of ten minutes each hour, se- 
cures reasonably satisfactory ventilation. It has the 
advantao;es of beino; automatic. 

Heating School Buildings. 

Proper Temperature conditions Health and Study. — 

School hygiene values the thermometer and requires 
its constant use in every schoolroom. We study to 
keep all parts of the schoolroom at a uniform tem- 
perature of from sixty to seventy degrees ; the stand- 
ard is sixty-eight degrees. This is accomplished rea- 
sonably well in small buildings with the ventilating 
stove, the open fireplace, the ventilating flues, and 
judicious window ventilation. By all means we must 
so manage that the pupils do not suffer with cold feet. 
Steam heating, hot-water heating, and hot-air heating 
are about equally successful in giving reasonable satis- 
faction. 'No system should be tolerated which does 
not furnish the heat by indirect radiation. It is not 
pleasant to denounce the hot stove in the middle of 
the schoolroom, still found in a majority of our school- 
houses. The arch enemy of school hygiene could not 
easily have invented a cruder means of torture or a 
more unhygienic mode of heating. Pupils near the 
stove burn, while those most distant almost freeze, and 
nearly all suffer with cold feet. 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 45 

Normal Temperature is Economic as well as Hygi- 
enic. — Teacher and pupils in a well-ventilated, well- 
lieated, well-lighted schoolroom do more work and 
better work than would otherwise be possible. Gov- 
ernment becomes comparatively easy. Interest and 
attention are far more readily secured. Pupils are 
bright and happy and healthy. Contrast such a school- 
room with the stupidity and inattention and disorder 
in a poorly ventilated, poorly heated, poorly lighted 
schoolroom. Every consideration urges parents, offi- 
cers, and teachers to spare no effort to secure the 
necessary conditions for the best school w^ork. 

Light in the Schoolroom. 

The Light within the Schoolroom should correspond 
with the Light without. — The alarming increase of de- 
fective sight among pupils intensifies the importance 
of having well-lighted schoolrooms. It is wise to 
study K^ature. Ideal ventilation secures as pure air 
within as without the schoolroom. Ideal lis^htino^ 
equalizes the intensity of light without and within the 
schoolroom. The nearer the light in all parts of the 
schoolroom corresponds with the light without, the 
better for teacher and pupil. Pupils go in and out 
without the painful feeling experienced when school- 
rooms are darkened. Window shades and blinds are 
often made instruments of torture, and should only be 
used in schoolrooms to prevent the glare of sunlight. 
For this purpose Yenetian blinds with movable slats 
are the worst device know^n, and semi-opaque shades 
are the best. 



46 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

All Parts of the Schoolroom should be Well Lighted. 

— Experts tell us that there should be no windows in 
front of the pupils, and that the best lighting requires 
windows at the pupils' left side only. But we must 
think of ventilation as well as lighting, and this may 
require windows on two sides of the schoolroom, the 
left side and at the back. At the least, the window 
surface should equal one tenth of floor surface. 'No 
schoolroom should be less than thirteen feet in height, 
and the tops of the windows should be within a foot 
of the ceiling and from eight to ten feet in height. 
As the shades roll from the bottom of the window, 
the lio^ht falls first from above. 

Pupils are trained to favour their Eyes. — Straining 
injures. Prolonged staring hurts. We train our 
pupils to use their eyes gently and sparingly. The 
mind does the hard work. The object is observed, 
and the pupil closes his eyes and pictures it. The 
pupil reads the paragraph once, and closes his eyes 
and thinks it many times. The pupil is trained to let 
his eyes rest gently on the printed page, while the 
mind does the work. How much the judicious teacher 
can do in training pupils to save their eyes, not only 
in the schoolroom but also at their homes ! 

Cleanliness and Conveniences. 

Schoolrooms must be kept Clean. — Some travellers 
tell us that everywhere they found our school build- 
ings untidy and overheated. As cleanliness is next 
to godliness, must we not class untidy schoolhouses as 
tending to godlessness? Many schoolhouses which 
have been used for two or three decades, they tell us, 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 47 

have never been scrubbed. Many schoolrooms are 
simply filthy, and nothing is more unhygienic than 
dirt and filth. Every consideration demands school- 
room cleanliness. Surely cleanliness should extend 
also to the school grounds. 

The Civilized Schoolhouse Toilet is a Hygienic De- 
sideratum. — Nothing in school hygiene demands more 
thoughtful consideration. Everywhere separate closets 
are provided for each sex, but, as a rule, the closets are 
not convenient, are not kept clean, are not hygienic."^ 

The revolutionary device of leaving pupils free to 
visit the closets at will is deemed of incalculable hygi- 
enic value. Having pupils " ask," a relic of ancient 
school barbarism, works exceeding harm. 

Hygienic Cloakrooms help. — We rarely find these 
necessities entirely satisfactory. All teachers insist 
that our cloakrooms should be well ventilated, w^ell 
lighted, w^ell heated, and convenient. Are they ? 
Are the arrangements such that pupils can deposit or 
take their wraps while passing in line ? Teachers, 
you can do more than all the rest of the world to se- 
cure school cleanliness, civilized toilet, and hygienic 
cloakrooms. It requires courage even to speak of 
these things. But the management of these matters 
is a part of our professional work. It is ours to plan 
and work for the good of onr race. School boards 
rarely refuse to listen to reasonable suggestions. A 
lecture occasionally on school hygiene does much to 
educate the people. 

* The teacher should not fail to read School Closets and Civi- 
lization, by Superintendent A. P. Marble. 



48 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Hygienic School Desks. 

Hygienic school desks and chairs are a school de- 
sideratum. They promote pupil comfort, and thus 
promote good order and vigorous study. They fa- 
vour hygienic positions of the body, and thus pro- 
mote health. 

1. The Single Desk and Chair are Preferable. — The 
double desk must go. With single desks pupils have 
more air space, more freedom, and better facilities 
for study. Control is much less difficult, and the 
hygienic gains are considerable. In another decade 
the single desk will, for these and other reasons, be 
used in most schools. 

2. The Adjustable Desk and Chair are the Best. — 
Others are not now permissible. The desks and chairs 
are adjusted to the pupil. The desk is just low enough 
to allow the bent elbow to touch it when tlie hand is 
raised to write without raising the shoulder or tilting 
the trunk. The chair is low enough to permit easy 
contact of the whole sole of the shoe with the floor 
when the pupils sit well back in the seat. A foot 
rest is always provided. The distance between the 
back of the chair and the edge of the desk should 
vary from nine to thirteen inches, according to size 
of pupils. Such adjustments foster hygienic positions, 
and should be made with great care. Inventors 
should study simplicity, so that teachers may be able 
to easily make the adjustments. 

3. The Desk Lid should be Adjustable for Study. — 
Some inventive genius will give us a simple adjust- 
able desk lid that on touching a spring will move to 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 49 

the proper angle for a book rest. It must be easily 
adjustable to each pupil. The distance, the angle, 
and the light are such that the eye rests gratefully on 
the printed page. The text-book and the dictionary 
rest on the desk lid ready for use. 

4. Reasonable Adjustment is of High Value. — The 
old education tried to fit the pupil to the seat and the 
desk ; the new education seeks to fit the seat and the 
desk to the pupil. Elaborate measurements and mi- 
nute adjustments are not thought of. The adjustments 
recommended are easy, reasonable, and of great hy- 
gienic and educational value. 

Hygienic Habits. 

Good Habits make for Manhood. — They mean health 
and happiness. Good habits lead to success. Teach- 
ers co-operate with parents in leading pupils to form 
good hygienic habits. Example, precept, and training 
are the effective means. Pupils come to reverence 
hygienic laws as they reverence moral laws. The 
habit of law-abiding is a great thing in education. 

1. Regularity is a Fundamental Hygienic Habit. — 
Octogenarians ascribe their long lives largely to the 
habit of regularity. Regularity in eating, in sleeping, 
in taking exercise, in studying, in bathing, in recrea- 
tion, tends to promote physical vigour and success. 
Regular work promotes physical and mental vigour, 
but irregularity tends to make invalids. Spurts often 
kill. We do a good thing for our pupils when we 
train them to the habit of regularity in attendance 
and study, but we do most for them when we lead 
them to form the habit of regularity in all things. 



50 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. Cleanliness is a Humanizing Hygienic Habit. — 

Savages are filthy. Soap and civilization are insep- 
arable. Order may be the first, but assuredly cleanli- 
ness is Heaven's second law. Bathing is scarcely less 
necessary than food. Kegular bathing, winter and 
summer, greatly increase physical vigour and mental 
power. A free use of water is the best of all preven- 
tives of disease. Filthiness characterizes swine and 
low people. Cleanliness and neatness characterize 
refined people. Teachers are models. 

3. Sleep is Nature's Sweet Restorer. — Abundant 
sleep is a primary condition of health and study. 
Every act of mind or body tends to exhaustion. 
Sleeping and rest give the system time to repair the 
waste. He who rises each morning as strong as on 
the previous day maintains his vigour, and he who 
rises stronger, increases his vigour. The great stu- 
dents and great workers have ever been good sleepers. 
Hard study hurts no one. Dissipation and late hours 
and spurts kill. The teacher co-operates with parents 
in encouraging pupils to take regular and abundant 
sleep. They must grow as well as learn. To keep 
late hours is a deadly hygienic sin. Sleepiness in 
the schoolroom counts as stupidity. No pupil or stu- 
dent who takes abundant sleep is likely to break down 
from hard study. 

4. Eating Habits are Important. — Hygienic food 
habits condition health and growth. Brutes live to 
eat, but men eat to live. "What to eat, and how much 
to eat, and when to eat, and how to eat, are vital con- 
siderations. Plain living and high thinking go to- 
gether. Half our pupils fail to do their best because 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 51 

of bad eating habits. The teacher, by sensible sug- 
gestions, may greatly improve the eating habits of his 
pupils. Stories from life are often the best hygienic 
lessons. 

5. Clothing Habits deserve Special Attention. — The 
principal hygienic use of clothing is to protect the 
body from heat and cold. Health, therefore, de- 
mands that we should consider the kind of clothinp- 
and the necessary changes of clothing. Upon these 
points the teacher will speak plainly and frequently. 
Boys as well as girls are injured for life by hurtful 
clothing habits. Happily, our clothing reforms are 
changing the worst clothing habits. But much work 
along this line will always devolve on the true teacher. 

6. Cheerful Habits promote Health, Vigour, and Suc- 
cess. — Cheerfulness is the greatest of all hygienic 
agencies. Those who are always glad are seldom 
sick. Of all places, home and school should be made 
the most cheerful. A grim, cold, repulsive teacher 
chills the child to the bones. This grimness is not 
confined to male teachers ; there are many lady teach- 
ers who long since forgot how to smile, at least how 
to smile in a sweet and loving manner. This is dread- 
ful in a primary school. We have one in mind now. 
The lady is tall, pale, wears glasses, and never smiles, 
yet she is one of the noblest of women. Her pupils 
seem to have copied her. They look anxious and 
pale ; wrinkles are on their young brows ; life seems 
scarcely worth living. They become an easy prey to 
disease and death. — This is all wrong. Education 
comes from voluntary and glad effort. The teacher 
ought to be happy and glad. She ought to fill the 



52 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

schoolroom with an atmosphere of love and a glow 
of cheerfulness. In such a school disease will be a 
stranger, and happiness and success will abound. Sun- 
shine is the emblem of the best school life. 

7. Habits of Law-abiding Self-control condition 
Achievement. — The best work of a school is the de- 
velopment of such habits. Hurtful habits must not 
be formed, and if such habits have been formed 
they must be cured by the formation of helpful habits. 
The drink habit is destructive. The tobacco habit 
hurts, and does not help. Teachers can do most to 
save their pupils from these and other ruinous habits. 
The great thing is to develop the habit of law-abiding 
self-control. Unlawful indulgence of appetites and 
passions is beastly ; lawful self-control is manly. All 
gratifications that hurt and do not help are unlawful. 
All good and all happiness comes through law-abiding. 
Health conditions happiness. 

From the few texts here presented, teachers, it is 
hoped, will work out many practical lessons. Other 
topics of vast moment should be studied. First of 
all, to be efficient, each teacher must solve the per- 
sonal hygienic equation. Then, we should gain such 
skill as will enable us to test sight and hearing and 
promote in every way the physical well-being of our 
pupils. So much depends on the proper treatment 
of pupils during the period of puberty that careful 
study is urged. The breaking up of bad hygienic 
habits by the formation of right habits is of the 
utmost importance. It is always wise to secure pa- 
rental co-operation. Not much can be said in a brief 
chapter, but these suggestions may awaken and deep- 



BETTER SCHOOL HYGIENE. 53 

en interest. The literature of school hygiene is abun- 
dant, but teachers must work out these problems for 
themselves. Books are merely helps. 

BETTER EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS. 

SUGGESTIONS, STUDY HINTS, AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

I. Higher Educational Ideals. — Illustrate what you mean by- 
reals and ideals. Give an example of how progress comes. What 
does the school do for the pupil? What is the test of school 
measures? What is the law of unity? Describe school evolu- 
tion. Why do brutes and savages fail to make progress ? Show 
how looking back hurts. Give examples of how better ideals pro- 
mote progress. What lesson may we learn from the serpent? 
Give what you consider the chief value of high pupil ideals; 
teacher ideals ; school ideals. Describe your ideal school ; your 
ideal teacher. 

II. Helpful Pupil Study. — What do you consider the chief value 
of pupil study? What does Dr. Butler say? Dr. Hall? CoL 
Parker ? How does it help the teacher ? Tell the story of child 
neglect. Give your plan for infant study; for child study; for 
boy and girl study. Why does the teacher need to study human 
life in all its stages? Why should the teacher profoundly study 
the pupil as a physical being ? as a mental being ? as a moral be- 
ing? Why must the teacher know himself? Tell what Prof. 
Barnes says about methods of pupil study. Describe your method. 

III. Teacher Improvement. — As an educator, what does the 
teacher do ? Prove that teaching is a profession. Discuss tenure 
of office ; salary ; specialization ; teaching as a career ; teaching as 
a learned profession. Why must your ideal teacher be gifted? 
prepared? devoted? progressive? Why do all educational peo- 
ples establish and sustain schools for the professional education 
of teachers ? Give the work of the department of education ; of 
the chair of pedagogy ; of the State normal school ; of the city 
normal school; of the summer normal school. Prove that a 
teacher needs a professional education even more than the physi- 
cian or the lawyer. Show that professional schools mean educa- 
tional artists. 



54 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

IV. Better School Hygiene. — What is school hygiene? Is its 
neglect criminal'? Tell the story of school sanitation in other 
times. Give your plan for promoting home hygiene through the 
school. Show that play is both hygienic and educative. Why 
should elementary schools have a recess at the close of each school 
hour? Name some advantages of exercise in the open air; of 
systematic physical culture. Compare the plans for physical cul- 
ture in England. Germany, France, and America. Give some ad- 
vantages of good ventilation. Tell about the ventilation in most 
schoolrooms. Describe your plan. Describe the ideal heating of 
the schoolroom. How may rural schoolhouses best be heated? 
What is the normal temperature ? Why should the light within 
correspond with the light without ? How may teachers favor the 
eyes of their pupils ? Show the relation between cleanliness and 
health. Give five reasons for schoolroom cleanliness. Tell about 
the civilized schoolhouse toilet. What is your plan for hygienic 
cloakrooms? Describe the hygienic school desk and seat. Tell 
something of the hygienic value of the habit of regularity ; of 
cleanliness ; of sound sleep ; of proper diet ; of suitable clothing ; 
of law abiding. Why does school hygiene concern all men? 
What is the teacher's personal problem ? What is meant by hygi- 
enic skill? 



PART II. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 
EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES. 



CHAPTER V. — Pupil Improvement through Educative School 
Environments. 

VI. — Pupil Improvement through Better School 
Appliances. 

VII. — Pupil Improvement through Helpful School 
Apparatus. 

VIII. — Pupil Improvement through Ideal School 
Text-Books. 

IX. — Pupil Improvement through Suitable School 
Libraries. 

55 



V. 

Educative 
Environ- 
ments. 



VI. 

Educative 
Appliances. 



1. Environments and moral growth. 

2. Environments and physical growth. 

3. Environments and mental growth. 

4. Environments and aesthetic growth. 

5. Commodious and educative school grounds. 

6. Educative schoolrooms. 

7. Ideal pupil environments. 

1. The schoolroom more than a workshop. 

2. Hygienic conditions of efficient work. 

3. Electric programme clock and facilities for 

movements. 

4. Physical comfort and effective work. 

5. The teacher's desk and dictionary holder. 

6. Revolving bookcase and working library. 

7. Working apparatus case and map and chart 

cases. 

8. Schoolroom facilities for educative work. 



fl. 

2. 
VII. 3. 

Helpful -{ 4. 
Apparatus. 

5. 

6. 

7. 



VIII. 
Ideal 
Text-Books, 4. 
5. 

6. 

"1. 

2. 

IX. 

Suitable J o 

School ' 
Libraries. . 



Educative value of schoolroom and school 

grounds. 
Value of blackboards and school furniture. 
Helps in the conduct studies. 
Helps in the language and literature 

studies. 
Helps in the science studies. 
Helps in the mathematics studies. 
Helps in the art studies. 

Good text-books supplement oral instruc- 
tion. 

Text-books open the treasuries of human 
experience. 

An ideal text-book is original, brief, clear, 
teachable, artistic. 

Germany carries oral teaching to extremes. 

Proper use of the printed page the greatest 
of school arts. 

Free text-books supplied by the depart- 
ment libraries. 

Each schoolroom should have a working 
library. 

Each department — rural, primary, interme- 
diate, high school — should have its de- 
partment library. 

Each town and city and college should 
have its general library. 

The faculties of the several departments 
should manage their respective libraries. 

Each teacher should be an assistant li- 
brarian. 

56 



PAET SECOND. 

EDUCATIVE SCHOOL FACILITIES. 



CHAPTEE Y. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THKOUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
ENVIRONMENTS. 

Environments condition Growth. — SurroundiDgs in- 
fluence the development of human beings as well as 
the growth of plants and animals. To some extent 
all men appreciate the educational effects of environ- 
ments. Thoughtful parents make homes in healthy 
districts and in cultured communities. The improve- 
ment of our hygienic, aesthetic, and social environ- 
ments engages the best energies of society. Brutes 
seek the most favourable environments for rearing 
their young instinctively, but man in an important 
sense creates his environments. 

School Management is the Art of creating Educative 
School Environments. — Educators study profoundly 
pupil surroundings and spare no effort to secure the 
most favourable environments. A true teacher cre- 

57 



58 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ates liis ideal school location, his ideal school grounds, 
his ideal schoolhouse, and his ideal school appliances. 
These ideals are his working models, which he ear- 
nestly strives to realize. 

Favoueable Location of the School. 

1. Environments favourable to Moral Growth the 
Highest Consideration. — To secure moral vigour with 
an environment of saloons, gambling dens, and dance 
houses, is more difficult than to secure physical vigour 
amid the deadly miasma of the swamp. It is also im- 
portant that the surroundings should be friendly to 
culture and refinement. We plan to place our schools 
where the environments now seem most favourable, 
and we work constantly to make the surroundings 
more and more desirable. We should look well to 
locating our schools where the environments are 
most conducive to ethical culture. The teacher leads 
the community to unite in the constant endeavour to 
strengthen the moral influences surrounding the school. 

2. Commodious School Grounds are an Educative Ne- 
cessity. — Pupils have an inalienable right to enough 
of the earth's surface to make possible their healthy, 
vigorous, and happy growth. In cities the effort now 
is to secure the largest possible school grounds, almost 
regardless of cost. Yillages and rural districts are 
now consecrating to pupil culture commodious school 
grounds. Our higher institutions everywhere demand 
large grounds. 

3. Sanitary Considerations must have Great Weight 
in the Selection of School Grounds. — The nature of tlie 
soil, the drainage, remoteness from marshy grounds 



EDUCATIVE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS. 



59 



and stagnant waters, the elevation and exposure, are 
some of the matters to be investigated. School 
grounds must first of all be healthy. In Ontario, of 
four thousand sites recently officially examined, only 
eighty were considered excellent sanitary school sites. 
Is this proportion the rule ? When hygienic grounds 
are available, it is surely criminal to select unhealthy 
school grounds. Think of it : generations of pupils 
will be helped or hurt by the selection. 

4. iEsthetic Environments educate. — School grounds 
should be object lessons of beauty, in order to foster 
refinement and make pupils happy. Natural beauty 




The Country Schoolhouso. 



should be considered in selecting school grounds, but 
grounds naturally unattractive may be made beautiful 
by art. Beautifying the school grounds is educative. 
The teacher leads and interests all the pupils in the 
work. Pupils are trained to help make the grounds 
beautiful and to help to keep them beautiful. The 
reflex influence on the homes is of great value. 



60 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The utter disregard of beauty in school environ- 
ments was the rule in the near past. This is repre- 
sented true to life in the sketch of a country school- 
house. Such school surroundings, common even a 
quarter of a century ago, are fortunately now becom- 
ing comparatively rare. Teacher, contrast with this 
primitive scene some of the beautiful school grounds 
you have observed. Create your ideal school grounds 
and begin to work up to your ideal. 

5. Enviroiiineiits should be Play-inviting. — All pu- 
pils must play as well as study. School grounds 
should be so well planned as to foster play. Besides 
the common playgrounds, there are decided advan- 
tages in having separate playgrounds for the sexes. 
Girls equally with the boys need regular invigorating 
exercise in the open air. Playgrounds should be sup- 
plied with such equipments for systematic exercises 
as tend to promote gracefulness and vigour. 

6. School Grounds should be made Educative. — The 
geography plot represents divisions of land and water. 
The botanical plot represents plant growth. The 
arboretum represents kinds of trees. The small 
aquarium represents aquatic life. The school grounds 
are thus made to teach fundamental object lessons. 
All the environments are made educative. The school- 
house, in its external appearance, teaches lessons in 
architecture. 

Educative Schoolhouses. 

1. The Schoolhouse is Central in School Life. — The 

environments now literally shut in the child. The 
pupil spends his hours in the schoolroom and only his 



EDUCATIVE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENTS. 



Gl 



minutes on tlie school grounds. The schooh'oom 
with its contents deeply impresses the life of the 
child. 'No one knows how much these close and con- 
stant environments influence the lives of pupils. It 
is safe to do our utmost to make these environments 
the best possible. 

2. The Evolution of the Schoolhouse is a Fascinating 
Story. — It is full of interest to teacher, pupil, and 
parent. School architecture fitly represents stages of 
educational progress. The schoolhouse with its en- 
vironments may be 
taken as a symbol 
of the culture of a 
community. The 
old log house with 
its huge fireplace, 
its puncheon floor, 
its clapboard roof, 
its greased paper 
windows, and its 
backless slab seats 
stands for pioneer 
education. Mar- 
vellous has been 
the transition from these rude structures to our beauti- 
ful rural schoolhouses and our attractive village 
school buildings and the educational places of our 
cities. lN"ot the courthouse, not the city hall, not even 
the church is so attractive as the schoolhouse. Even 
the country schoolhouse is becoming a thing of beauty. 
But, as the immediate environment of our pupils, are 
our schoolhouses of to-day to be unconditionally com- 




The Old Log Schoolhouse. 



62 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

mended ? Do tliey exert the best silent, unconscious 
influence for uplifting the pupils ? How may we 
constantly increase the education value of our school- 
rooms ? 

3. The Teacher plans the Ideal Pupil Environments. 
— You first create your ideal school and then go to 
work to realize it. The house is for the school, and 
not the school for the house. You build the school- 
house around your ideal school. Ours is the age of 
specialists. School architects now study to plan 
school buildings from the standpoint of the schools. 
The educator contributes the ideal school with its 
ideal environments ; the architect literally erects the 
building around the school. He studies to secure at 
the least cost the best hygienic conditions, the best 
educational conditions, and, withal, the highest beauty. 
The teacher and school architect co-operate to actual- 
ize the ideal schoolhouse. 

4. An Unfit School Building is a Monument of Folly. 
— Most school buildings planned by common carpen- 
ters, or by common architects, or by school boards 
are such monuments. They are usually unsightly, un- 
comfortable, unhygienic, poorly located, poorly lighted, 
poorly ventilated, poorly heated, and poorly adapted 
to school work. Business school boards employ the 
very best educators and the very best school archi- 
tects to plan and build their schoolhouses. Such 
buildings are monuments of wisdom, and are the fit 
environments of our precious pupils. 

5. The School Home of the Young should be elevat- 
ing. — All agree that the schoolroom should be a thing 
of beauty as well as utility. Tinted walls, classic pic- 



BETTER SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 63 

tnres, flowers, a singing bird, a lifelike cast or two, beau- 
tiful and fitting furniture, floods of light, delicious 
warmth, pure air, cleanliness, neatness, cheerfulness, 
make our pupils glad and awaken their activities. 
The teacher daily works such transformations as keep 
the schoolroom fresh and new. Such a schoolroom is 
indeed ideal, but in every land we now find real school- 
rooms surpassing this ideal, but, alas ! they are the ex- 
ceptions. The average schoolroom is a cheerless thing. 
You have endured it, and you can transform it. 

6. Better School Environments must come. — We are 
hopeful, for great advances have been made ; but our 
school environments are still largely semibarbarian. 
The saloon and the school go on side by side. The 
environments of our fine horses are still vastly better 
than the environments of a majority of our pupils. 
Women as members of our school boards are quietly 
working beneficent changes. Art in our schools is si- 
lently transforming school environments, but the great- 
est of all influences is that of our earnest teachers. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL 
APPLIANCES. 

The Schoolroom is a Miniature World. — It is infi- 
nitely more than a workshop, for here the young are 
led to prepare themselves for complete living. Here 
the pupils develop bodily vigour, mental power, and 



64 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

moral worth. We have studied the schoolroom as a 
hygienic home and as a fitting environment for young 
immortals. We will now study the schoolroom as a 
place for educative school work. Progress comes 
through improved appliances. Even with crude im- 
plements the master workman can do great things, 
but with better instrumentalities he can accomplish 
vastly greater things. 

We must secure the Best Hygienic Conditions. — 
Only thus can we make efiicient school work possible. 
It is well to reiterate again and again these condi- 
tions. We study to secure perfect ventilation ; pupils 
have an inalienable right to breathe pure air. We 
study to secure perfect heating by keeping the tem- 
perature normal and uniform throughout the room. 
We study to secure perfect light by having the light 
in all parts of the schoolroom as nearly as possible 
uniform and as nearly as possible of the same inten- 
sity as the light outside. Such conditions are large 
factors in good school work, as they make pupil im- 
provement possible. 

We must provide Facilities for Movements. — We 
plan our school buildings to favour the quick and 
orderly movements of the pupils. Aisles, doors, halls, 
stairways, cloakrooms, are so planned as to facilitate 
speedy ingress and egress. We find some buildings 
so admirably planned that a thousand pupils are as- 
sembled or dismissed in from two to three minutes. 
In case of fire there is no panic. The hourly recess 
occasions no loss of time. Changes of classes are 
made quietly and quickly. The average schoolhouse 
must be reconstructed in view of pupil movements. 



BETTER SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 65 

It impresses us more and more that the practical 
teacher must plan the schoolhouse in view of the 
school and the school work. 

The Electric Programme Clock must signal Move- 
ments.-^" — We thus secure perfect regularity, and at the 
same time save all our energies for educative work. 
The clock assembles and dismisses the school and calls 
and dismisses classes. It signals any number of pro- 
grammes and regulates an entire school of many de- 
partments. The programme clock is a beneficent 
device. The relief of teachers is very great, and it 
gives larger liberty to the pupils. Pupils soon learn 
orderly self-control. We find it safe to leave them 
free during all movements. After a time we may 
safely discontinue the line formations on the grounds. 
Pupils are trusted to assemble orderly and to conduct 
themselves worthily. 

Pupils must be made comfortable.— That we may 
secure interest and attention and effective study, we 
must manage to secure physical comfort. This very 
largely is attained by suitable seats and desks. Some 
of us have watched with intense interest the evolu- 
tion of the school desk. The transition from the 
backless slab seats and the barbarous slab desks of 
the old log schoolhouse to the adjustable desks and 



* The author a third of a century ago devised an electric sig- 
nalling apparatus which he used for ten years before it was im- 
proved and patented by a friend. So far as known, this was the 
first school in which movements were signalled by a clock. Great 
improvements have been made. Fred Frick, of Waynesborough, 
Pa., now supplies an excellent electric programme signalling ap- 
paratus. 

6 



QQ SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

chairs of our times is one of the signs of progress. 
Our study for decades was to adjust the pupils to 
crude and uncomfortable seats and desks — veritable 
instruments of torture. The adjustable single desk 
and adjustable chair mark an epoch in school life. 
We now adjust the desk and the seat to the pupil. 
Elsewhere the hygienic gain is discussed. Here we 
think of the educational advantages. Pupil energy 
is conserved. Interested attention and efficient study 
and good conduct are more easily secured. The desk 
is the pupil's workshop, laboratory, office, library, and 
studio ; and he is trained to keep it in the best condi- 
tion for work. 

Teacher's Schoolroom Outfit. 

1. The Desk symbolizes the Teaching Profession. — 

Theology has its pulpit, law its bar, trade its counter, 
and teaching its desk. The story of the evolution of 
the teacher's desk deserves a place in literature. "We 
associate the old schoolmaster with a rough table, al- 
ways rickety. Since his day great improvements 
have been made, and the teacher's desk is now a 
thing of beauty and utility. The desk is the teacher's 
headquarters, and is the first thing considered in fit- 
ting up a schoolroom. Everything else is arranged 
in view of the teacher's desk. 

2. The Dictionary Holder is important. — The open 
dictionary is so placed as to be conveniently used by 
teacher and pupils. The teacher must always be 
ready to devise helpful things. The common dic- 
tionary holder with a jointed arm instead of stand, 
attached to the teacher's desk, is an admirable device. 



BETTER SCHOOL APPLIANCES. 67 

By a slight movement it is placed ready for use by 
teacher or pupils. At the present time Webster's In- 
ternational and The Standard are counted the best 
school dictionaries. A good dictionary, so placed as 
to invite constant use, is a schoolroom necessity. 

3. The Revolving Bookcase for the "Working Library- 
helps. — Each teacher should have a working library. 
A revolving bookcase with one hundred suitable vol- 
umes is a schoolroom treasure. The revolving book- 
case should be so placed that the teacher without 
rising may reach any volume in it. It should also be 
easy of access to the pupils. After considerable ex- 
perimenting the plan here suggested is recommended. 
It seems to be the fitting device. 

4. The Apparatus Case for the "Working Apparatus 
should be convenient. — Its place seems to be against 
the wall, on the end of the teacher's platform. In 
this are kept the appliances most helpful in teaching. 
The case need not be large, as it is meant for the 
working apparatus. Each school must have its ap- 
propriate case. Some ingenuity is needed to con- 
struct these cases so as to secure beauty and utility. 
In schoolrooms thus arranged we find the apparatus 
is used many times where it is used once when placed 
in another room. Proximity counts for much in 
education as well as in love. 

5. The Map and Chart Cases are placed above the 
Platform. — All are hung on spring rollers. The teacher 
studies to have these cases convenient and so placed 
that the maps and charts can best be seen by the pupils. 
Stupid teachers refuse to think and devise, and hence 
they make their work hard and themselves ridiculous. 



68 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

It seems so easy, with our modern school devices, to 
arrange maps and charts for convenient use, that we 
are astonished to see such inexcusable neglect even in 
many otherwise good schools. 

ScHooLKooM Facilities foe Educative Work. 

We do well to study some devices from various 
standpoints. The blackboard easily stands first among 
our teaching facilities. In good teaching blackboards 
are used continually. It is certainly worth while to 
study the blackboard problem. 

Pictures in the schoolroom are educative helps. 
When we visit our beautiful schoolrooms and feast 
our eyes on the artistic pictures, we never cease to re- 
gret the blank and dingy walls of the old schoolhouse 
of other days. 'Next to objects, pictures are most 
helpful in school work. Good pictures give delight 
as well as culture. Portraits of representative men 
and women aid in conduct studies and in literature. 
Pictures full of taste and story assist in art and lan- 
guage studies and history. In Nature studies appro- 
priate pictures are also valuable. The ideal school- 
room, from the the kindergarten to the university, is 
rich in helpful pictures. 

The director of fine arts in Pratt Institute, Brook- 
lyn, W. S. Perry, well says : " Art education has an- 
other field of work besides direct instruction in draw- 
ing ; that is, the building, furnishing, and decorating 
of schoolhouses. This phase of the art educational 
movement ought also to be brought much more widely 
and forcibly to the attention of the public. School 
buildings, grounds, and furnishings should serve ar- 



HELPFUL SCHOOL APPARATUS. 69 

tistic as well as economic and hygienic ends. They 
should be constant object lessons in art for the inspi- 
ration of the children who are to shape the coming 
civilization. They can and should be made a positive, 
definite help in refining the manners, cultivating the 
imagination, and quickening the whole spiritual life. 
Co-operation in the work of improving school archi- 
tecture and decoration should be solicited from the 
public, for whose good the schools themselves exist, but 
authoritative direction of the movement should be in 
the hands of experts in art and education." 



CHAPTEE yil. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL 
APPARATUS. 

School appliances embrace all school instrumen- 
talities used in illustrating and explaining. Tools are 
not more important to the mechanic than school appa- 
ratus to the teacher. The good teacher is skilful in 
the use of apparatus, and suitable appliances almost 
double the efiiciency of the teacher. We think of all 
helpful educative devices and materials as in a sense 
school appliances. We here use the expression in 
this broad meaning to include school grounds, school 
buildings, school furniture, school apparatus, and 
school laboratories, in so far as they are used as edu- 
cational appliances. 



70 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

1. School Grounds have Remarkable Educative 
Possibilities. — First of all, we so plan our school 
grounds as to promote physical culture, and we se- 
cure the best hygienic and play-provoking appliances. 
Kext, we so develop our school grounds as to pro- 
mote gesthetic culture. Winding walks, flowering 
shrubs, trees, birds, grass and flower plots, made and 
kept beautiful by the pupils, do much to cultivate 
taste. Then we fit up our school grounds to promote 
intellectual culture. Our mathematics grounds, our 
geography grounds, our biology grounds, all prepared 
by the pupils, are helpful. The school grounds have 
great educative possibilities, and inventive teachers 
study to render them of the utmost value by making 
them a miniature world. 

2. The Schoolroom itself is the most Helpful of all 
Appliances. — It is so constructed and furnished as to 
promote physical and aesthetic culture. Teacher and 
pupils here find the means and facilities for illustra- 
ting form, direction, areas, and a thousand other 
things. Jesus drew most of his illustrations from the 
immediate environments and from the lives of the 
people. So will efficient teachers. We learn to look 
upon our schoolrooms, our school grounds, our neigh- 
bourhoods, and the home and school life of our pupils 
as our working educative laboratory. 

3. The Blackboard is used in aU Good Teaching. — 
The teacher's board can be seen by all the pupils. 
For convenience it is arranged in three sections, hung 
with weights so as to be raised or lowered by a touch 
of the hand. This device saves much labour. It is 
good economy to provide abundant blackboard sur- 



HELPFUL SCHOOL APPARATUS. 71 

face. The width and the height of the boards must 
depend upon the class of pupils. As to material, 
natural slate is the best and ultimately the cheapest. 
Liquid slating gives good satisfaction. Slated paper 
and slated cloth are often convenient. The board 
surface should be slightly tilted (about six inches) 
back from the perpendicular, so as to prevent the re- 
flection of light from the windov^s striking the pupils' 
eyes. The wainscoting should extend up to the board. 
At the bottom of the board should be securely fas- 
tened a trough three inches wide and one inch deep, 
and this trough should be covered with wire gauze. 
This arrangement forms a dust trap, which secures a 
remarkable relief from crayon dust, and is probably 
the most satisfactory and convenient device now avail- 
able. The skilful teacher will make large use of the 
blackboard with all grades of pupils. Fortunate the 
pupils whose teacher has his knowledge at the end of 
his crayon as well as at the end of his tongue ! 

4. Conduct Studies require Helpful Appliances. — 
Portraits of illustrious men and women take the first 
place. Each school may now have a few plaster busts 
of great personages. Good books take the highest 
rank. Historic charts and maps and the slated globe 
are essential helps in teaching history, the leading con- 
duct study. In conduct lessons life is the laboratory, 
and the use of appliances is limited. Society ; the 
knowing, feeling, doing self ; history, and literature 
are the chief educative appliances in developing char- 
acter. 

5. Language-Literature Studies require Suitable 
Helps. — The kindergarten leads the little ones to live 



72 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

language and literature. The plays and songs and 
stories and memory gems express the inner lives of 
the infants. All the environments and appliances are 
kindergarten helps in teaching language and litera- 
ture. In the primary the best appliances are needed 
in training the children to speak and read and write 
our language and enjoy our child literature. Envi- 
ronments and all appliances and all the other studies 
are helps in this work. We need for the beginners 
pictures and reading charts, and suitable readers and 
supplementary readers. Dictionaries, encyclopsedias, 
and the language-literature libraries become the chief 
appliances as the pupils advance. Charts and maps 
and portraits are always helpful. 

6. Science Studies call for Extended Facilities. — As 
no text-books are used in [N^ature studies in our ele- 
mentary schools, we require abundant illustrative ma- 
terial and some apparatus. Each school should have 
small typical collections adapted to its locality. The 
teacher and the pupils will extend these collections, 
and each pupil will be led to make his own collections. 
Charts and pictures and microscopes are invaluable aids. 

Geography must always rank as the central study 
in the elementary science group. In this study en- 
vironments are the most helpful. A slated globe, a 
tellurian globe, relief maps, and outline maps are 
essentials. The pupils will model the geography 
grounds under the teacher's directions. Boards for 
map moulding can be made as needed. Suitable books 
of travel and adventure from the library assist greatly. 
Simple apparatus enables the teacher to give profit- 
ably easy lessons in physics and chemistry. 



HELPFUL SCHOOL APPARATUS. 73 

When our intermediate schools become specialized 
the science rooms will be fitted up for teaching the 
sciences. The teacher will be a specialist in science 
and will greatly extend and enrich the course. Most 
of our high schools have reached this stage of de- 
velopment, but our grammar schools still linger in 
the border land. The science teacher commands the 
necessary appliances and the pupils do more and more 
laboratory work. In most of our city high schools 
we now find biological, geological, physical, and chem- 
ical laboratories. Modern colleges and universities 
give great prominence to the laboratories and to labor- 
atory methods. 

7. Mathematical Studies call for the Best Aids. — 
Through a knowledge of things in space and time the 
pupil comes to get a knowledge of form and number. 
Form and number must be taught the children con- 
cretely. Every step must first be taken objectively. 
Geometrical forms, bundles of sticks, the numeral 
frame, weights and measures, are the most helpful. 
'No elementary school should be without a set of the 
metric as well as the common weights and measures. 
Since ten is the base of our system of notations, the 
metric weights and measures can be used with great 
advantage. The metric system may be taught side by 
side with our common system, and thus the way may 
be prepared for its universal use. The aim in concrete 
geometry and in elementary arithmetic is to find out 
rather than to prove, and hence the work is objective 
and practical. Simple instruments for measurement are 
of great value. In the high school the outfit for teaching 
and learniniT mathematics is extended to suit the work. 



74 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

8. Art Studies require Good Facilities. — Most schools 
now have music charts and writing charts. All should 
have materials and models for teaching drawing. We 
can afford to be liberal in supplying our school grounds 
and school gymnasiums and schoolrooms with appli- 
ances for physical culture. For manual training we 
must at first be content with meagre outfits. As the 
work goes on and as the interest increases we can 
readily secure the necessary facilities. 

Practical Suggestions. — Teachers and school boards 
do well to consider carefully the problems of school 
apparatus. 

1. Purchase only from reliable dealers. Thus you 
will guard against frauds and secure the best articles 
on reasonable terms. 

2. Purchase apparatus as needed. This will pre- 
vent cumbering your schools with useless appliances. 
The schoolroom is no place for rubbish. 

3. Secure some helps for each of the five study 
groups. To exhaust the funds for science apparatus 
is a serious educational blunder. Each study has its 
claims. Conduct lessons demand portraits, maps, 
charts, books. Primary reading demands objects, pic- 
tures, charts, books. Geography demands geography 
grounds, geograj)hy boards, geography cards, globes, 
maps, books. Arithmetic demands objects, numeral 
frame, weights, measures. Art demands tools, pic- 
tures, models. But it is needless to specify. Inven- 
tion is giving us unlimited helps. The competent 
teacher will select the most helpful apparatus for 
each study. 

4. Make some of your apparatus. Many of the 



IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 75 

most helpful appliances are often those things made 
bj the teacher and the pupils. As manual training 
advances this becomes easj. 



CHAPTER YIIL 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT- 
BOOKS. 

Books are our Best Helps. — Treasured knowledge is 
found in books. He who has mastered the secrets of 
gaining knowledge from books may be considered in- 
dependent of the living teacher — fit to graduate. To 
develop this power is the work of the school. By a 
school text-book is meant a book that forms the basis 
of regular class work. We have text-books for teach- 
ers, but ordinarily we think of text-books as books 
used by pupils in connection with the instruction 
given by the teacher. Good text-books, next to the 
living teacher, are the best school helps ; and the 
student is far more dependent on his books for in- 
formation than upon his teachers. 

Text-Books open the Treasures of Human Experience. 
— " One great object of the school in our time is to 
teach the pupil how to use books — how to get out for 
himself what there is for him in the printed page. 
The man who can not use books in our day has not 
learned the lesson of self-help, and the wisdom of the 
race is not likely to become his. He will not find, in 
this busy age, people w^ho can afford to stop and tell 



76 SCHOOL MANAGExMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

him by oral instruction what he ought to be able to 
find out for himself by the use of the library. 

" Oral instruction, except as an auxiliary to the text- 
book — except as an incitement to the pupil's interest 
and a guide to his self-activity and independent inves- 
tigation in the preparation of his next lesson — is a 
great waste of the teacher's energy and an injury to 
the pupil. The pupil acquires a habit of expecting to 
be amused rather than a habit of work and a relish for 
independent investigation. The most important in- 
vestigation that man ever learns to conduct is the 
habit of learning by industrious reading what his 
fellow-men have seen and thought. Secondary to 
this is the originality that adds something new to the 
stock of ideas and experiences of the race. The 
pupil who has not yet learned what the human race 
lias found to be reasonable, is not likely to add any- 
thing positive to the sum total of human knowledge, 
although he will certainly be likely to increase the 
negative knowledge by adding a new example of folly 
and failure. 

"The first thing in education, therefore, is the 
acquirement of the experience of the world, in order 
that the pupil may not start anew at the bottom of 
the hill, but may begin with the results of the work 
of his race." — [W. T. Hakris.] 

IDEAL TEXT-BOOKS. 

1. Original. — x\n ideal text-book is a creation of 
genius. We think of genius as ability to see into 
things. The author of a true text-book gains insight 
into pupil nature and into his subject, and so is able 



IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 77 

to create a text-book wliicli unfolds the subject to 
the papil. A real text-book is as truly a creation as 
a play of Shakespeare. It furnishes materials and 
ideals for generations of compilers. Such text-books 
do not come at the bidding of publishers. Like the 
classics, they are original in plan and expression, but 
embody the wisdom of the race. The author of a 
true text-book deserves to be crowned side by side 
with the poet. 

2. Brief. — An ideal text-book presents the essential 
things. It is a text-book, not an encycloptedia. It 
gives in good form the results of human experience 
and thought. Principles are concisely presented, 
clearly illustrated, and aptly applied. The teacher 
interprets the text-book. Oral instruction and the 
school library supplement the text-book. Though 
not large, the true text-book presents the results of 
human learning. A synopsis is not a text-book, nor 
is the ponderous volume rich in details ; the one 
starves the pupil while the other confuses and dis- 
courages him. The golden mean characterizes the 
ideal text-book. 

3. Clear. — An ideal text-book presents the subject 
with sunlight clearness. The child understands Jesus. 
Boys and girls understand Dickens. All men appre- 
ciate the world classics, for the golden truths out- 
shine the silver settings. The true text-book holds 
the attention to the thought ; no energy is wasted 
puzzling over the meaning of obscure and difficult 
expressions. Our best text-books for school and col- 
lege, like the lessons of the Great Teacher, are mar- 
vels of clearness. 



Y8 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

4. Teachable. — An ideal text-book fosters good 
study and good teaching. Each paragraph is suggest- 
ive as well as expressive, and becomes a topic for 
study. The pupil is led to apperceive, for the new 
thought is approached and mastered in the light of 
previous acquisitions. One book is a delight and an 
inspiration to pupils and teacher, while another book 
of great merit is a disappointment and a discourage- 
ment. Whence this difference ? Perhaps we can not 
express it, but we find on trial this difference. A 
teacher gives up a strong book ; why ? Because with 
it she could not get the best study or the best class 
work. The book was not teachable. Before print- 
ing, some authors send advanced sheets of the lessons 
to a hundred good teachers, requesting them to use 
with their classes and return with their suggestions. 
If all would-be authors should pursue this plan, two 
thirds of their books would never be printed, but 
those printed would be treasures. 

5. Artistic. — An ideal text-book is a work of art. 
Ours is the age of admirable text-books. Publishers 
are giving us books artistic in thought and in lan- 
guage and mechanically excellent. The binding is 
artistic and enduring. The type is large and clear 
and the illustrations are choice. The beautiful open 
page has always a smile for the pupil. It is taken 
by common consent that nothing is too good for the 
child. As we come to know child needs better, 
many artistic improvements in our text-books will 
doubtless be suggested, and it will become one of the 
highest pleasures of the teacher to put into the hands 
of pupils the hest text-books. How are you to know 



IDEAL SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 79 

such books ? Just as you come to know good litera- 
ture — by tasting and testing. 

The Text-Book and Oral Teaching. 

' Real Teaching is Oral. — The teacher leads the pu- 
pil to find out from JSTature and from books. In our 
times we magnify experimental methods and Nature 
study. It is welh But in all reforms there is the 
danger of going to extremes. In the reaction against 
the slavish, senseless book grinding of the old scliool- 
master, we have drifted into a shoreless sea of exclusive 
oral instruction. It is not well. Book study must 
go on side by side with Nature study. The text-book 
must always occupy an important place in school work. 
Germany has carried Oral Teaching to Extremes. — 
^' Few text-books are used in the elementary schools 
of Germany — fewer, I believe, than is good for the 
pupils — first, because a knowledge of the use of books 
and a good habit of using them are most valuable to 
people of any walk in life ; and, secondly, because a 
proper use of them prevents too great dependence 
upon the teacher. The programmes of graded schools 
are so arranged as to prevent pupils from studying 
independently and without interruption in school ; 
and the constant talking of teachers, however stimu- 
lating it may be to pupils, is not without its bad 
effects." — [John F. Prince, Methods in German 
Schools.] 

The Proper Use of the Printed Page is the Greatest 
of all Arts taught in the School. — " Every one will ad- 
mit that what is called the ' slavish use ' of text-books 
is a great evil. The memorizing of words and sen- 



80 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

tences without criticism and reflection on their mean- 
ing is a mechanical training of the mind and fit only 
for parrots ; but, on the other hand, the proper use 
of the printed page is the greatest of all arts taught 
in the school. How to get out of printed words and 
sentences the original thought and observation re- 
corded there — how to verify these and critically go 
over the steps of the author's mind — this is the meth- 
od of discovery and leads to the only real progress ; 
for real progress comes from availing oneself of the 
wisdom of the race and using it as an instrument of 
new discovery. That other method sometimes com- 
mended, of original investigation without aid from 
books, forgets that mankind have toiled for long 
thousands of years to construct a ladder of achieve- 
ment, and that civilization is on the highest round of 
this ladder. It has invented school education in order 
that its youth may climb quickly to the top on the 
rounds which have been added one by one slowly 
in the lapse of ages. The youth shall profit vica- 
riously by the thought and experience of those who 
have gone before. For the child of the savage tribe 
there is no such vicarious thinking and living ; he 
begins practically at the bottom of this ladder, and 
with no rounds on which he may climb." — [W. T. 
Hakris, Address on Horace Mann.] 

Free Text-Books. 

This seems to be the solution of the book question. 
It is believed that the time is not distant when all our 
States will adopt the plan of furnishing free text- 
books now working so well in several States. Each 



SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 81 

State will work out the details in its own way. But 
more and more the vital management will be left to 
the teachers, and we count as teachers all school su- 
perintendents and educated librarians. When we cre- 
ate rural, primary, intermediate, and high-school de- 
partment libraries, and place these libraries under the 
management of their respective faculties, it will be 
easy to have the text-books supplied through these 
libraries and these several school faculties. JSTo one 
will question the fitness of this method. The teach- 
ers who use the text-books are surely the ones who 
should select the books. Many advantages not now 
dreamed of will certainly follow. 



CHAPTEK IX. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SUITABLE SCHOOL 
LIBRARIES, 

Books educate. — Carlyle has said "that the true 
university of these days is a collection of books." It 
is an education to know how to read and what to 
read. The school does its best work when it develops 
a taste for the best literature and fosters the readino^ 
habit. Men of action as well as men of thought get 
their inspiration from books. A choice school li- 
brary wisely used doubles the efficiency of the school. 
The school library as now conceived includes a work- 
ing library for each schoolroom, a department library 
7 



82 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

for eacli department, and a general library for each 
city. 

r 1. Rural. 

2. Primary. 

1. The working libraries. ■{ 3. Intermediate. 

I 4. High school. 

[ 5. College. 

f 1. Rural. 
3. The department libra-] |; f™Siate. 



School Libraries. -J 



ries. 
3. The general library. [^ 5. College. 



I 4. High school. 



We plan to make school libraries accessible, suit- 
able, choice. As made and managed in other days, 
the library was practically out of the reach of teach- 
ers and pupils. The world is now working to put se- 
lect libraries into the schools, to be managed by the 
teachers. The twentieth century seems destined to 
be the school-library age of the world. The coming 
teachers are studying how to create and how to man- 
age and how to use ideal school libraries, just as they 
are studying how to control wisely and teach efficient- 
ly. Nothing in art is final. Our crude beginnings 
must give place to better things. The partial failures 
of most school-library schemes stimulate us to de- 
vise better things. In faith and hope this sug- 
gestive scheme is submitted to the brotherhood of 
teachers. Brethren, the work is intrusted to you. 
Horace Mann, in 1840, made an earnest plea for the 
school library : " The idea is modern. In 1835 the 
State of New York initiated the movement to place 
a library in each school. I look upon the effort to 
place within the reach of young and old the best and 
most suitable books as one of the grandest moral en- 



SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 83 

terprises of the age. It will extend to all the inesti- 
mable privileges heretofore enjoyed by the few.'' 
New York seems to have led in the school-library 
movement, as it has in other great forward educa- 
tional movements. 

The Wokking Libearies. 

Each schoolroom, in schools above the kinder- 
garten, should have a working library. For our ele- 
mentary schools, the ideal working library contains 
about one hundred volumes, kept in a pretty revolv- 
ing bookcase. The books are selected to supplement 
the teaching, and the pupils feel as free to use the 
books as to breathe the air. They come to think of 
the library as theirs, and they are led to feel a whole- 
some respect for the books. " Our library must be 
handled with care, and must be kept clean and beauti- 
ful," is the sentiment of the school. The teacher 
never wearies in teaching the pupils how to read and 
what to read. 'No effort is spared to develop the 
reading habit and to cultivate an appreciation of good 
books. The pupils are not encouraged to read many 
books, but to read appreciatively the best books for 
them. 

1. The Working Rural School Library should be Fos- 
tered. — We find, as a rule, few suitable books for the 
young in the average rural home. Then, in the coun- 
try, culture must necessarily come very largely through 
the school and through books. Access to a hundred 
choice books means a new world to the country pu- 
pil. ]^early all libraries are still urban ; we earnestly 
plead for a working library in every country school- 



84 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

house. Ten dollars invested in a rural school library 
will do more good than a hundred dollars invested in 
an urban school library. " If I had a million dollars 
to invest where it would do most good," said a great 
philanthropist, " I would put it all into rural school 
libraries." 

2. Primary "Working Libraries enrich. — Millions of 
our pupils do not even reach our grammar schools, 
and, besides, the reading habit is easiest formed 
during the primary years. We are now rich in 
books suitable for children. To get our primary 
pupils into the habit of reading appreciatively choice 
books is a great work. This is purifying and en- 
riching the stream of humanity at the fountain. 
One hundred suitable books for the children in each 
primary schoolroom would prove an incalculable 
blessing. 

3. Intermediate Working Libraries elevate. — In the 
specialized intermediate there will be 'Q.ye special 
libraries in addition to the department library : con- 
duct, literature, science, mathematics, art. Each 
teacher will form a special library to re-enforce his 
special work. In our unspecialized grammar schools 
each working library must include books for all the 
subjects, and books must be selected to suit the grade. 
These libraries will afford congenial and profitable 
occupation for restless boys and girls, and pupils will 
be trained to find out from books. The text-book in 
geography is supplemented by suitable books of ex- 
ploration and travel, and by the stories of the States 
and nations. So in all the studies. Each study is en- 
riched by the library. 



SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 85 

4. High-school Working Libraries are invaluable. — 

The pupil is now a student, and is capable of great 
things. Probably at no other period of life do choice 
books count for so much. The youth learns to use 
wisely the general library, but still needs the help of 
the teacher. One book in the teacher's working 
library counts for more than a hundred in the general 
library. Pupils are led to read at least one excellent 
book in connection with each study in addition to 
general reading. Each high-school teacher is a spe- 
cialist in a group of studies, and his working library 
is a special library. 

Department Libraeies. 

The Isolated Teacher belongs to the Past. — Every- 
where teachers are learning to work in groups. The 
law of unity requires this. A group of teachers work- 
ing as a unit constitute a faculty. The primary prin- 
cipal and her assistants constitute a primary faculty ; 
the intermediate principal and the assistants constitute 
an intermediate faculty ; the principal of the high 
school and the assistants constitute a high -school 
faculty. We are now learning to group our rural 
schools, making the teacher of the central school prin- 
cipal, and the teachers of the several schools in the 
group assistants. The teachers of a group of rural 
schools work as a unit, and we are coming to think of 
the district principal and his assistants as a rural school 
faculty. We are getting to understand the law of 
unity, and it is surely revolutionizing our school work. 

One function of the department libraries will 
doubtless be to furnish free text-hooks. As the prin- 



86 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

cipal is librarian and the assistant teachers assistant 
librarians, the management of text-books will be ad- 
mirably provided for. Many States now supply text- 
books to the pupils free, and the time is not distant, it 
is believed, when all the States will adopt this plan. 

1. The Rural School Department Library is most 
important. — More than half of all our pupils are in 
our country schools. Think of the beneficent work of 
getting into the hands, and heads, and hearts of these 
starving millions the world's best literature ! It is 
not easy to exaggerate the importance of this move- 
ment, " the grandest moral enterprise of the age." 
What greater work can the millionaire do than to 
endow the rural school libraries of his native State ? 
This library, as we now think of it, is kept in the 
library room of the central school building of the 
rural school group, and the principal is librarian. 
Each of the assistant teachers is an assistant librarian, 
and books are returned and taken out at the serai- 
monthly meetings. The faculty, with the best avail- 
able helps, and under the general directions of the 
county and State superintendents, plan, build up, and 
manage the library. Each teacher gives an annual 
entertainment for the benefit of the library, and the 
State and the district contribute annually limited 
amounts. Donations are always in money. The 
working library of each school is furnished from the 
district library, and is kept fresh. 

The rural school library must meet the wants of 
all, and must be made easily accessible to old and 
young. In selecting books, we first think of our pu- 
pils, and then of the people, and then of ourselves as 



SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 87 

professional teachers. We study to get the best helps 
for all. 

2. The Primary Department Library is of Great 
Value. — Here, too, the principal is librarian and the 
assistant teachers are assistant librarians. The work- 
ing libraries are supplied from the department library, 
and the department libraries are supplied from the 
general library. The primary faculty, under the di- 
rection of the superintendent and the general librarian, 
plan, build up, and manage the primary library. They 
study to procure the most helpful books, first for the 
children and then for themselves. There is no ma- 
chine work, and no two libraries will ever be the 
same. The faculty study, discuss, select, and thus the 
library is always unique, is always growing. It is 
completely adapted to childhood and primary work, 
for the teachers make and manage it. 

3. The Intermediate Department Library. — Until 
the pupils reach the high school their reading should, 
as far as practicable, be directed by the teachers. The 
intermediate principal is librarian, and the assistant 
teachers are assistant librarians. The intermediate 
faculty create a unique intermediate library and man- 
age it. Books are secured through the general li- 
brary, and from this library the intermediate working 
libraries get their supplies. The intermediate teach- 
ers work as a unit. At their weekly meetings we 
must find remarkable interest in library measures. It 
is safe as well as wise to leave the intermediate faculty 
to plan and manage the intermediate library. Super- 
intendents and general librarians do well to limit them- 
selves to suggestions. 



88 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

4. High School, Normal School, and College Depart- 
ment Libraries stand Side by Side with the Labora- 
tories. — Research and investigation go on together. 
Experts are interested in details, but the educator 
studies to get the libraries close to the students. Each 
group of studies now has its department library and 
each professor has his special working library. This 
plan, it is claimed, increases a hundredfold the value 
of the general library. Those who have closely ob- 
served its workings for decades so testify. General 
school and college libraries do their most effective 
work in supplying the department libraries. 

General School and College Libeaeies. 

Our mammoth public-school and college libraries 
are our pride and delight, but are they doing all they 
are capable of doing '? The Bank of Scotland through 
its branches extends its privileges to all the people of 
Scotland. May not our great libraries, in a similar 
way, vastly extend their usefulness ? The editor of 
the Library Journal says : " The trend of opinion 
and experience points toward the branch school li- 
brary as the best solution of the library problem. 
Those libraries that have tried the method are unani- 
mous in its favour. I^ow, at best, our great libraries 
do not reach a large percentage of our pupils, but 
when they learn to enlist all teachers as active assist- 
ant librarians, then their beneficence will be extended 
to every pupil." 

The library department of the E^ational Educa- 
tional Association, the professional librarians who are 
so admirably managing our great libraries, and our 



SUITABLE SCHOOL LIBRARIES. 89 

various library associations, give promise of great 
usefulness in the future. At present all plans for 
library extension must be tentative, but we shall build 
on the rock when we learn to intrust to our teachers 
the management of our working and our department 
school libraries. The general library will thus come 
into direct touch with all the teachers and all the pu- 
pils, and will supplement in the most helpful ways all 
other agencies. 

Our general libraries should be managed by pro- 
fessional librarians in thorough sympathy with the 
schools. In the near future only graduates of schools 
for librarians will be given charge of our libraries. 
Such librarians will organize and train the teachers 
for assistant librarians, and will thus extend the bless- 
ings of the library to every home. 

EDUCATIVE SCHOOL FACILITIES. 

SUGGESTIONS, STUDY HINTS, AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

V. Pupil Environments. — Show the relations of environment to 
growth. Why is the school site so important 1 Describe desira- 
ble and undesirable hygienic environments ; Eesthetic environ- 
ments; culture environments ; moral environments. Sketch your 
ideal school grounds ; your ideal schoolroom. Why should school 
grounds be play- inviting? Point out the relations of play and 
work. What may the teacher do to improve pupil environments ? 

VI. School Appliances.— Show that the schoolroom is much 
more than a workshop. Is the school a miniature world ? Give 
3/OM7- plan for securing good hygienic conditions for effective school 
work. Tell how you would have a schoolhouse constructed and 
furnished so as to facilitate movements. Describe the automatic 
movements of a school signalled by an electric programme clock. 
What are the gains ? How does physical comfort help ? Picture 
the evolutions of school seats and desks ; the teacher's desk. How 
will you fix your dictionary holder ? Describe your working-li- 



90 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

brary case ; your arrangements for maps, charts, pictures. Give 
some reasons for the use of the blackboard. How will you abol- 
ish the dust nuisance f Tell some of the benefits of pictures in 
the schoolroom. 

VII. School Apparatus. — Tell what you mean by educative ap- 
paratus. Describe your educative school grounds ; your educative 
schoolroom ; your ideal blackboard. How may the teacher's 
blackboard be best arranged % What do you consider the most de- 
sirable helps in conduct teaching ? in language-literature teach- 
ing f in science teaching ? in mathematics teaching ? in art teach- 
ing f Give some of the advantages in having teacher and pupils 
make a part of the apparatus ; make their own collections. Sug- 
gest ways of securing and preserving apparatus. 

YIII. School Text-Books. — What is meant by a text-book ? a ref- 
erence-book f Give your reasons for exalting the art of gaining 
knowledge from books. Why should a text-book be originaH 
brief ? clear % teachable ? artistic f Tell the story of the oral-teach- 
ing movement. Give your reasons for thinking that the Germans 
make a mistake in ignoring text-books. Outline Dr. Harris's rea- 
sons for emphasizing the proper use of the printed page. Give 
your arguments for and against free text-books. What plan of 
adopting and supplying text-books do you count best ? Is it safe 
to intrust this work to the teachers ? 

IX, School Libraries. — Give Carlyle's definition of a modern 
university. How may school libraries be made to reach all pu- 
pils ? Is it well to make each teacher an assistant librarian % 
What State initiated the school-library movement ? When ? Tell 
what Horace Mann said in 1840. Present seven reasons why each 
schoolroom should have a working library. Describe the ideal 
rural school working library ; primary ; intermediate ; high- 
school. Give reasons for a department library for each depart- 
ment of our school work. Why should the department faculty 
manage the department library? Describe the ideal rural school 
department library; primary school; intermediate school; high 
school. What must become the most beneficent function of the 
general library ? Illustrate by the Bank of Scotland. Should our 
general libraries be managed by professional librarians educated 
and trained for this special work f What can teachers do to ad- 
vance the school-library movement % 



PART III. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH 
EDUCATIVE SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



CHAPTER X. — Pupil Improvement through Educative Gov- 
erning Power. 

XI. — Pupil Improvement through Educative Mo- 
tives. 

XII. — Pupil Ijiprovement through Educative School 
Regulations. 

XIII. — Pupil Improvement through Educative Law- 
abiding. 

Xiy. — Pupil Improvement through Educative Pun- 
ishments. 

91 



X. 

Educative 
Governing " 
Power. 



.9. 

ri. 



XL 

Educative - 
Motives. 



3. 

3. 
4. 
5. 

ri. 



XII. 
Educative 
School -{ 
Regula- 
tions. 



XIIL 

Educative 
Law- 
abiding. 



XIV. 

Educative 
Punish- 
ments, 



Character. — The teacher the conduct modeL 
Culture. — The teacher the ideal. 
Insight. — The teacher the wise guide. 
Teaching Power. — The teacher an artist. 
Will Power. — The teacher a leader. 
Heart Power. — The teacher a helpful friend. 
System. — The teacher an organizer. 
Tact. — The teacher a manager. 
Bearing. — The teacher a governor. 

Through high incentives we lead. 
Highest Motives. — Duty, truth, beauty. 
Altruistic Motives. — Social betterment. 
Egoistic 3Iotives. — Self-betterment. 
Low Motives. — Fear, rivalry, marks, prizes. 
Debasijig Jlotives. — Selfishness, malevolence. 



2. 



A school an embryo state. 
School regulations must be ^ 



The school makes the laws 
1 

2 



Educative. 

Positive. 

General. 

Practical. 

Popular. 



4. School code. ^ 



5. Adopting code. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 



Law of quietness. 
Law of regularity. 

3. Law of promptness. 

4. Law of propriety. 

5. Law of dutv. 



Govern up to law-abiding self-control. 
Educate the pupil to work quietly. 
Educate to habits of regularity. 
Educate to habits of promptitude. 
Educate pupils to act with propriety. 
Educate pupils to do right. 
Conditions, example, teaching, training. 



Punishment is remedial 
abiding. 

School punishment must 
be 

fV. Disapproval. 

2. Reproof. 

3. Deprivations. 

4. Suspension. 



Educa- 
tive 
punish- 
ments. 
Hurtful 
ments. 



and works law- 

1. Educative. 

2. Natural. 

^ 3. Reformatory. 

4. Just. 

5. Mild and rare. 



1. Corporal. 

2. Fear. 

3. Degrading. 
1^4. Marking. 

Punishments must be rational. 



school punish- 



92 



PAET THIED. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT TE ROUGH EDUCATIVE 
SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 



CHAPTEE X. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE GOVERNING 

POWER. 

The purpose of the school is educative, and the 
teacher is pre-eminently the educator. Appliances are 
important, but the teacher is the vital agency. All 
good comes through lawful self-effort, but it is the 
teacher who manages to secure educative effort. 
Governing power is the Divine commission for lead- 
ership, and is the proof that the teacher is called and 
sent. The teacher thus commissioned, through en- 
nobling motives, leads his pupils up to self-control, self- 
government, and self -efficiency. Teaching is the art 
of promoting pupil growth — physical, mental, moral 
— and we think of the teacher as having the capabil- 
ity to lead his pupils to make the most of themselves. 
He somehow manages to get his pupils into habits of 
doing what is Tight and best. When one goes wrong, 
he manages to get him to retrace his steps. The 

93 



94 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

power to thus manage is termed educative governing 
power. Most persons who really desire to be teach- 
ers are gifted with governing ability, but this power 
may be incalculably increased by culture. The ora- 
tor, the musician, the poet, and the educator are 
such because they have improved their natural 
gifts. Teacher, this is a personal lesson. In view 
of human experience, you ask, " What are the ele- 
ments of educative governing power ? " and " How 
may I put on the whole armour of educative leader- 
ship?" 

1. Character. — Be what you would have your pu- 
pils become. Moral character is the first element of 
educative governing power. 'No bad person can gov- 
ern well. Moral character — purity of heart and life — 
is the basis of true educative leadership. 

Jesus lived the one perfect life, and so is the fit 
leader of men. As you approach the perfect life you 
become fit to lead your pupils up to a higher and bet- 
ter life. Moral character is the most potent of all 
forces. We despise and distrust a base, weak, mean 
man ; but we trust and almost worship a pure, strong, 
true man. The vile teacher, however brilliant, de- 
bases his pupils and fosters anarchy. The pure, 
strong teacher is a living object lesson, and a fit 
leader of pupils. Such a teacher, above all, will fos- 
ter the moral virtues and promote the growth of 
moral character. Conduct and not scholarship is the 
pre-eminent thing in education. It is easy for a 
worthy teacher to govern well, for his pupils trust 
him, love him, reverence him. Moral worth is the 
uplifting factor in teacher governing power. 



o 

So 
o 



EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWEll. 95 

IX. Bearing. Assert leadership by your bearing. 

yyy^ rp j Manage to utilize all educative agen- 

I cies. 

^TiT a { Secure good order and efficient work 

VII. System. ] ^^^^^-^^ ^^^^^^^ 

VI. Will Power, i Control through high motives and 
( good habits. 

V. Heart Power. ^^ ^he pupil's sympathizing friend 
( and helper. 

IV. Teaching j Lead pupils to do the best work in the 

Power. ( best ways. 
III. Pupil j Study pupil nature that you may pro- 

Insight. ] mote pupil growth. 
,^ ^ ( Cherish the spirit of mastery and 

II. Culture. j ^road culture. 

Be what you wish your pupils to be- 



I. Character. , come. 



2. Culture. — Master tlie subjects you teach, and 
seek broad culture. Culture is the second element of 
educative governing power. All the world follow 
the man who knows. Broad culture commands. 
Educational leaders must be cultured men and 
women. Aristotle and Thomas Arnold, the peerless 
teachers, were also peerless students. Only earnest 
learners are fit to lead learners. It is said that Ag- 
assiz never needed to ask for attention ; he knew, 
and commanded attention throus^h interest. After 
half a century of highly successful work a teacher 
was asked the secret of her success. " Thorough prep- 
aration," was her modest answer. Many teachers, 
some say a majority, never investigate, never think, 
never study, never prepare the lessons. Surely such 
persons are unfit to lead their pupils to mastery. 
They are not learners, and hence are not in touch 
with learners. They can not govern well because 
they can not create and sustain interest. Only ear- 



96 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

nest students can be educational leaders. It is easy 
for the cultured teacher to govern well, for culture 
commands respect and confidence. Culture is the 
commanding factor in teacher governing power. 

3. Pupil Insight. — Study pupil nature that you 
may promote pupil growth. Pupil insight is the 
third element of educative governing power. The 
world's great leaders have been profound students of 
human nature. They knew men as well as affairs. 
The educator must know his pupils. You study the 

,^^| physical economy that you may command hygienic 
conditions and promote physical vigour. You study 
y\ the mental economy that you may adapt the work to 
each pupil and promote harmonious mental growth. 
You study the moral economy that you may foster 
character growth. You work in the light, and com- 
mand everything that helps and reject everything 
-A that hurts. You provide the best work for each and 
^ all ; you manage to have each pupil do educative 
\: work. Not understanding his pupils, the old school- 
\ master groped his way in the dark and ruled through 
c^ the rod. Many modern schoolkeepers know not 
their pupils, and hence govern through low incen- 
tives. It is easy for one who knows his pupils to 
\ govern well, for he understands the^rVwpys and wants. 
^C Pupil insight is the guiding factor W teacher govern- 
^^^ ing power. y -^^ , 

4. Teaching Power. — Lead\ yoxir pupils to do the 
best work in the best ways. " Teaching power is the 
fourth element of educative governing power. You, 
in some degree, have mastered the educative art. 
You laid a solid foundation in the rock of self-study 



EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. 97 

and pupil study. From tlie standpoint of the edu- 
cator you have studied the history and science of edu- 
cation. You have lingered at the feet of the masters, 
and learned the art of teaching from Jesus, from 
Plato, from Froebel. You have read some of the 
best things and have felt the spell of some of the 
best living teachers. You have gained some skill in 
the divine art of teaching. Realizing the precious- 
ness of each moment, you so plan that your pupils do 
only the best work and only in the best ways. You 
manage to keep yourself and your pupils so interested 
and so busy that there is no time or occasion for dis- 
cipline or marking. Good teaching insures easy con- 
trol and promotes everything that is best in school 
life. But many schoolkeepers can not teach, and so 
the time and energies of hosts of pupils are squan- 
dered. Disorder comes of inability to teach. To 
keep order takes a large part of the time of the weak 
teacher. The soul-waste in many schools is appalling. 
It is easy for the powerful teacher to govern well, for 
he interests his pupils and leads them on to victory. 
Teaching power is the vital factor in teacher govern- 
ing power. 

5. Heart Power. — Be the pupil's sympathetic friend 
and helper. Heart power is the fifth element of edu- 
cative governing power. Love is the last word in the 
art of educative leadership. The teacher is warm- 
hearted as well as pure-hearted. In the old education 
the teacher was master, and drove ; in the new educa- 
tion the teacher is the pupil's friend, and leads. The 
Great Teacher was the loving friend and companion of 
his disciples. Pestalozzi lived with his pupils, worked 



98 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

with them, shared their joys and sorrows. You love 
your pupils and are touched by their infirmities ; you 
sympathize with them in their temptations and difii- 
culties, and you rejoice with them in their joys and 
successes. You do your best to make each one strong 
and good and useful and happy. By friendly looks, 
kind words, and generous acts you win the esteem and 
love of your pupils and make them your true friends. 
In the sunshine of affection all that is lovely in pupil 
nature buds, blossoms, and bears fruit. Even hateful 
children become interested and interesting. The tricks 
and shams and frauds and stupidities and cruelties 
that blighted the old school life shrink away, for love 
delights to cast out stupidity and fraud as well as 
fear. 

Teaching is the altruistic profession. The teacher 
does not think of self, but feels a burning desire to 
do most for his pupils. He studies to lead them to 
find out the best things, feel the most exalting emo- 
tions, and do the most ennobling acts. His pupils 
grow altruistic and rival each other in generosity. 
All help each to know more, do more, be more. It 
is easy for the sympathetic teacher to govern well, for 
love makes teacher and pupils coworkers. Heart 
power is the winning factor in teacher governing 
power. 

6. "Will Power. — Control through high and elevat- 
ing motives. Will power is the sixth element of ed- 
ucative governing power. Will stands for effort- 
making. Will power is the Aladdin's lamp that 
brings about results and achieves the unexpected and 
the impossible. Men of great will power lead armies, 



EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. 9*9 

lead nations, lead the world. Will power gives us 
manly men and womanly women. Aristotle had 
greater will power than Alexander, and Paul had 
greater will power than Csesar. The loving Jesus 
had supreme will power. 

Will power is the invincible governing force. 
The teacher plans wisely and executes firmly. You 
do most for your pupils by leading them through high 
motives to develop habits of persistency in high en- 
deavour. You lead them through right incentives to 
plan well their work and persistently carry out their 
plans. You train them to do their best in the best 
ways and so become strong and efficient. You man- 
agre to infuse into them iron determination and in- 
domitable courage. You cherish self-control by ex- 
ample, by telling about noble people, by training. 
Each pupil develops the double art of self-control and 
self-government. It is easy for the decided teacher 
to govern well, for he is leader. Will power is the 
controlling factor in teacher governing power. 

7. System. — Secure order through system. Infuse 
system into all school work. System is the seventh 
element of educative governing power. System 
stands for fitness of things. It transforms a mob into 
an army. System means order in school work, and 
order means a time for everything, a place for every- 
thing, and method in doing everything. The skilful 
teacher manages to get these order elements into the 
warp and woof of school life. 

(1) Time system is essential to order and effi- 
ciency. Regularity and promptitude are the basis of 
school order. The programme provides occupation 



100 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

for each pupil during each moment of the school day. 
The teacher trains the pupils to work to the pro- 
gramme, and thus prepares them for life. Work 
and recreation supplement each other, and pupils 
are happy because they are kept interested and 
busv. 

(2) Place system helps to produce order. " A place 
for everything and everything in its place " is as im- 
portant to the teacher as to the housekeeper or the 
mechanic. Having places for play, for wrappings, 
for books, for study, and for recitation enables the 
teacher to secure good order with much greater readi- 
ness. 

Training pupils to orderly habits in the school- 
room prepares them for orderly habits through life. 
The teacher's desk, the pupil's desk, the schoolroom, 
and the school grounds should be models of order and 
neatness. 

(3) Method system works educational marvels. 
From the opening to the close of school all move- 
ments are signalled by the programme clock. En- 
ergy is economized to the utmost. Pupils are trained 
to efficient methods of study. The most helpful 
methods of teaching are studied. In all the school 
work there are definite purposes and right ways of 
realizing them. He who shortens the road to knowl- 
edge lencrthens life. Wise methods of work double 
teacher efficiency and pupil efficiency. Good meth- 
ods lessen friction and make effort count for most. 
System is the key to success ; it organizes victory. 
Systematic working habits are worth more to the 
pupils than the knowledge gained. System organizes 



EDUCATIVE GOVERNING POWER. iQi 

order, and each pupil learns to move to the rhythm 
of the school. It is easy for the systematic teacher 
to govern well, for he makes school life orderly. 
System is tlie organizing id^aiOY in teacher governing 
power. 

8. Tact. — Manage to utilize all educational agen- 
cies. Tact is the eighth element of educative govern- 
ing power. Tact stands for the wisdom of the serpent 
blended with the innocence of the dove. It means 
policy in right doing. Paul adapted himself to all 
classes. Cicero conciliated his auditors. Even Alex- 
ander and Caesar and ISTapoleon had to use tact in 
managing their soldiers. We think of tact as includ- 
ing common sense, wisdom, shrewdness, and skill in 
managing. 

(1) As a leader the teacher needs to he tactful. Co- 
operation must be secured and opposition disarmed. 
One person can not do much, but many persons work- 
ing together can build cities, create school systems, 
and make states. The teacher must manage patrons 
as well as pupils. He is the natural leader in all 
educational matters. Success depends on the hearty 
co-operation of all. At every step tact is demanded, 
and often the teacher must seem to follow while really 
leading. 

(2) As a manager the teacher needs a double por- 
tion of tact horn of wisdom. Evils must be met and 
conquered one by one. Misconduct must be made 
the occasion for deepening the love of right. Every 
incident must be turned to advantage. Even oppo- 
sition must be made helpful, as contrary winds are 
made to waft the ship across the sea. The angry 



102 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

parent who comes to make trouble must be sent away 
a friend and helper. The exuberant life of the young 
must be made educative. Wise management makes 
the difference between success and failure. 

(3) The educator must exercise tlie utmost tact. 
Whom to help and when to help and how to help are 
momentous considerations. The end in view is to 
generate in the pupil a deep love of learning and to 
foster self -effort. The pupil must be educated to 
work out his own salvation. The work must be 
adapted to each pupil, and each one must be encour- 
aged to do his best. Kight methods and right habits 
of study are to be cherished. In a word, the art of 
teaching requires boundless tact. It is easy for a tact- 
ful teacher to govern well, for he manages to make 
everything help. Tact is the managing factor in 
teacher governing power. 

9. Bearing. — Assert leadership by your bearing. 
Quietness with confidence is the ninth element of edu- 
cative governing power. There is a dignity of bear- 
ing and a quietness of manner which we always asso- 
ciate with conscious strength, as there is a nervous 
anxiety and ill-temper which we invariably attribute 
to a lack of confidence in one's position or to a very 
superficial character. The bearing of the teacher 
either commands or forfeits the respect and confidence 
of the pupils and patrons. The loud, fussy teacher 
offends, and the weak, doubting, wavering teacher 
awakens contempt. The bearing of Washington was 
such that he never needed to command ; his request was 
law. So should it be with the teacher. It is easy for 
a quiet and confident teacher to govern well, for he 



EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 103 

seems born to rule. Bearing is the inspiring factor 
in teacher governing power. 



CHAPTER XL 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 

Government is the power of control that pro- 
duces and sustains order, but school government is 
much more : it educates pupils to habitual good con- 
duct and effective study ; it organizes order, and 
through educative incentives leads pupils into habits 
of law-abiding self-control. Doing right acts from 
right motives educates. 

Motives in the Soul Economy are Incentives. — Ideas 
occasion emotions ; emotions occasion purposes ; pur- 
poses occasion acts. Ideas awaken desires and so be- 
come incentives to acts. A self is rational as well 
as free, and hence acts from motives. Ideas become 
desires and purposes, and so move us to do. Motives 
are at once our incentives to do and the explanation 
of our acts. Even the child answers " Because " when 
asked why it did so. 

Through Motives we lead. — Motives are induce- 
ments to act. Weak motives are slight inducements 
and strong motives are powerful incentives. Erom 
infancy up pupils are led through motives, for they 
are free and rational. In governing, as in teaching, 
we study to reach effectively each individual. A 
large per cent of our pupils want to do the right 



104: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

thing, and will make a strong effort to do it under 
any and all circumstances ; another class will be in- 
fluenced almost entirely by the good or the vicious 
environments ; while in most schools will be found a 
few positively vicious pupils. Well-disposed pupils 
respond to all right motives ; weak pupils need all 
helpful influences and effective incentives; vicious 
pupils must be transformed by teacher kindness and 
teacher tact. All pupils may be led by right incen- 
tives, but great wisdom is needed in the choice of 
motives, and great skill is needed in presenting in- 
centives. 

The Teacher determines Pupil Motives. — It is a so- 
cial axiom that one person may influence the conduct 
of another. All reforms as well as all debasements 
rest on this fact. You stand for the best in the life 
of the pupil ; you determine his studies and largely his 
companionship. Through your example and through 
stories and through all lessons and through books you 
give direction to his thoughts and impulses, and 
awaken ennobling desires and high purposes. You, 
more than all others, lead pupils to cherish high 
ideals and strive to realize them. You are the pupil's 
friend, and in a high sense determine the incentives 
which control in pupil life. Yours is a fearful re- 
sponsibility, but each pupil rightly led by you will 
prove a blessing to society and will be a star in your 
unfading crown. 

Motives help or hurt. — Incentives that lead to right 
acts are educative motives, but allurements to wrong 
doing are debasing motives. Rulers of pupils as well 
as the rulers of men need to study the whole gamut 



EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 105 

of motives. What motives help, and do not hurt ? 
What motives hurt, and do not help ? These are in- 
cisive questions which we must answer. Are we in 
our school work leading our pupils through the most 
helpful motives ? Are some of the incentives we use 
hurtful ? Let us honestly re-examine the very foun- 
dations of our work. Think what it means to your 
pupils. Proper incentives to good conduct and help- 
ful study make for a grand manhood, but improper 
inducements work ruin. Our school work must be 
permeated by the very spirit of high motives. We 
must root out at any cost every hurtful or even 
doubtful school incentive ; then we can hopefully 
work to get our pupils to act habitually from fight 
motives. 

School Incentives. 

Our pupils, like ourselves, are very human. In 
most cases they do not mean to do wrong, but all feel 
good and bad impulses, and often act thoughtlessly, as 
the brutes do. But soon all learn to consider before 
doing, and it is these purposed acts that hurt or help. 
Incentives to helpful acts are educative motives, but 
incentives to hurtful acts are debasing motives. Our 
highest mission is to lead our pupils to act from edu- 
cative motives. For school purposes it seems fitting 
to group pupil incentives as hurtful, low, high, 
highest. 

1. Hurtful Motives. — Incentives to debasing acts 
are hurtful motives. The cravings of the appetites 
and the imperious demands of the passions become 
debasing incentives when they allure to lawless acts. 
One who habitually yields to these incentives brutal- 



106 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

izes himself. Temptations to violate law — hygienic, 
social, moral — are hurtful motives. Yielding to 
temptation gives us a v^orld full of degraded human 
beings. The greatest thing in education is to train 
pupils to habits of law-abiding self-control. Through 
educative, motives we lead our pupils to resist hurtful 
allurements and overcome temptations. Incentives 
to selfish acts are hurtful motives. A selfish man is 
a base man. One who regards not man nor God is 
low indeed. Selfishness is the sum of everything de- 
testable. Yielding habitually to selfish incentives 
makes one mean, ungenerous, heartless. Through 
love and all generous and kindly incentives we lead 
our pupils to root selfishness out of their lives. 

2. Low Motives. — Incentives based on low con- 
siderations are low motives. Their name is legion. 
Low motives unavoidably tend to become hurtful, and 
at most, when permissible, are temporary expedients. 
They are not educative. They do not make for man- 
hood. Fear is a low motive, but love casts out fear. 
Prizes, per-cent marks for conduct and scholarship, 
and all rivalry-fostering distinctions are low incen- 
tives that tend to become hurtful. Extraneous in- 
centives to good conduct and effective study must be 
counted as low and hurtful motives. 

" I have been thirty-five years in the schoolroom as pupil and 
teacher ; have lived a good part of that time in the atmosphere 
of prizes and per cents ; have watched their false spur and un- 
natural colouring of character ; have looked upon noble ambition 
perverted to things abnormal; have seen the physical, intellec- 
tual, and moral wreckage that ensued ; and as the result of per-- 
sonal investigation and personal experience, I do not hesitate to 
pronounce the whole system of incentives, to which reference has 







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108 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

been made, as abnormal, unprofitable, false, and immoral. Their 
entire tendency is to temporary results, to stifled interest, to the 
recognition of an unnatural means as an end, to the development 
of a selfish spirit, and to dishonest practice, as well as to over- 
pressure and overnervous and physical strain." — R. W. Search. 

3. High Motives. — Incentives that make for man- 
hood are high motives. Habitually acting from high 
incentives develops a noble manhood.* 

(1) We appeal to self-incentives. These are in- 
centives to self-betterments. Our loving Father 
plans each life, and implants in each one burning de- 
sires to make the most of that life. All right incen- 
tives to self -betterment tend to ennoble. The pupil 
desires to stand well, desires esteem, desires approval 
because he is worthy ; no marks or reports are need- 
ed ; only approving smiles and encouraging words. 
The deserving pupil feels that he stands well. The 
pupil desires knowledge for its own sake ; this is the 
divine incentive to study. Our pupils are intensely 
interested, for we lead them to find out. All extrane- 
ous incentives to study or to duty are hurtful. True 
teaching commands attention and sustains interest. 
The pupil desires power, desires efficiency, that he 
may act well his part. As our model, Jesus lived a 
perfect life and taught us to work on toward perfec- 
tion. A noble aim is a high incentive to a noble life. 
The pupil does his best to-day that he may be able to 
do better to-morrow. We do well to encourage and 
give wise direction to the aspirations of our pupils. 

(2) We appeal to altruistic incentives — incentives 
to social betterment. The greatest of these is love. 

* Royal Incentives, E. E. White, p. 153, School Management. 



EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. 109 

Love and duty are twin sisters, and go hand in hand. 
Pupil love responds to teacher love. Love makes 
duty easy. Beautiful friendships elevate. Generos- 
ity makes real heroes. Kindness is a crown of glory. 
We think of God as our loving Father, and of all men 
as our brothers. God is love, and in the ratio that 
we become Godlike our motives become altruistic. 
Nothing appeals more strongly to most pupils than 
the fact that they can help the teacher and help their 
fellow-pupils. Kindness, generosity, friendship, grati- 
tude, and reverence grow into life habits. 

4. Highest Motives. — Incentives of the true, the 
beautiful, the good, are the highest motives. We 
rise above egoistic and altruistic considerations, and 
act from cosmic motives. We love the higher life. 

(1) Truth is a powerful incentive. The search 
for truth, the desire to impart truth, and the earnest 
effort to live truth, are in the highest degree enno- 
bling. The pursuit of truth dignifies life and gives the 
highest joy. No one wonders that the mightiest men 
devote their lives to this pursuit. We lead our pupils 
to find truth, and so they get to hunger and thirst for 
truth. No other incentive to study is so strong and 
so elevating. The ideal school is verity embodied. 
No shams, no pretenses, no lies, are tolerated. The 
teacher feels truth, looks truth, speaks truth, acts truth. 
The pupils become truthful, for they breathe an at- 
mosphere of truth. 

(2) Beauty is a mighty incentive. No one knows 
how largely his life is affected by the beautiful, the 
sublime, and the humorous. The beautiful and sub- 
lime in Nature and art and literature do much to re- 



110 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

fine and elevate. We lead our pupils to appreciate 
beauty and to produce beauty. Each one studies to 
keep himself clean and neat. Each one in song and 
speech and movement and drawing and moulding cre- 
ates beauty. Each one feels exaltation as he becomes 
absorbed in Homer and Dante and Milton. Above 
all, each one endeavours to live a beautiful life. The 
sense of honesty and honour is beautiful. 

(3) Duty is the supreme incentive. Acting solely 
from a sense of duty, doing right because it is right, 
does most to ennoble. Man is a constitutional sover- 
eign and reigns through law. The universe is so 
planned that all good comes through law-obeying. 
Duty is doing right from right motives. Man is a 
constitutional sovereign, and reigns by doing right. 
Above all, education develops the duty habit. 

We begin with the infant. Obey, is the only item 
in its ethics. Somehow it gets to feel that it ought 
to obey its parents. This is the budding of conscience, 
the beginning of a life of duty. To the child, paren- 
tal will is law, is right. As the loving mother trains 
the little one to walk, so she trains it to obey. 

We train the child to do right. It gets to feel 
that it ought to do right — ought to obey its parent, 
its teacher, and its school laws. Parents and teacher 
manage to get the child to obey willingly, thus edu- 
cating conscience and will. ]^o theories, no dogmas, 
no arguments, no rods, are permissible. Lovingly 
lead the child into habits of law-abiding. 

We lead the older pupils to strengthen law-abid- 
ing habits. The pupil's ethics widen and widen. 
God is always the loving Father and the beneficent 



EDUCATIVE MOTIVES. HI 

lawgiver. Jesus and the teacher are always the dear- 
est friends. Law-abiding self-control is always the 
greatest thing. Duty dignifies and re-enforces all 
other proper motives. The pupil very much wishes 
to do something. " Is it right ? " " Yes." " Then 
thank God and do it." 

What Motives. 

School management is the art of securing good 
conduct and efficient study through high motives. 
When seen from the standpoint of duty, all is plain to 
teacher and pupils. Like instruction, motives must 
be adapted to individual pupils. . It is safe to rely 
upon the highest incentive w^iich will move the pupil. 
Duty and justice and generosity and the desire for 
betterment and the sense of honour, in most cases, will 
prove all-sufficient to induce good conduct and efficient 
study. Some pupils, however, must be led for a time 
through other motives, such as approval, public opin- 
ion, and consequences. The earnest effort must be to 
secure right conduct, but when a pupil has gone wrong 
he must be brought back to the path of duty through 
educative suffering. 

Incentives conflict. Our appetites and passions 
and selfish impulses entice us to do debasing acts, 
while all ennobling incentives move us to do right. 
This irrepressible confiict goes on in every human 
heart. 

One victory strengthens, and many victories root 
right doing into habit. In this momentous battle the 
teacher deeply sympathizes with the pupil, and does 
everything possible to strengtlien him ; and in case 



112 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

he goes wrong he gently leads him through educative 
motives back to the path of duty. 



CHAPTER XII. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THKOUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
REGULATIONS. 

We think of the School as an Embryo State. — The 

pupils are trained to make lav^s and obey them, and 
are thus educated for citizenship. The ideal school is 
an embryo republic, in w^hich the prime object of 
government is to educate the pupils up to self-gov- 
ernment. The school life thus becomes a training for 
good citizenship. Pupils develop the habits of self- 
restraint, self-control, and self-mastery, and these are 
the highest products of education. The school be- 
comes an impressive object lesson of the reign of law, 
and of the great truth that all good comes of law- 
abiding. 

Wise Laws are Fundamental. — The old schoolmas- 
ter was a despot, and with all his rules and all his rods 
has passed away. Though often a blundering tyrant, 
he did what he could. Peace to his ashes! The 
teacher is not a boss. The goody-goody teacher, 
with no laws and no punishments, is the opposite 
extreme and is a well-meaning failure. The teacher 
is not a sentimental weakling. The true teacher, 
through educative regulations leading up to self-con- 



EDUCATIVE SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 113 

trol and law-abiding habits, is tlie golden mean. The 
teacher is the friend and leader. 

Principles determine Laws. 

'Not caprice, but educative principles determine 
school regulations. "What laws will prove most help- 
ful ? What regulations will best prepare the pupil 
for life ? The following guiding truths will enable 
us to answer these questions. 

1. School Regulations must be Educative. — School 
laws are made for the pupil, just as the Sabbath was 
made for man. Everything to help and nothing to 
hinder is fundamental. Liberty through law is the 
aim. Orderly freedom is the ideal. In the school 
world each pupil is kept in touch with the ideal, and 
is trained to habitually do the things that help and 
avoid the things that hurt. The school code must be 
educative. 

2. School Laws must be Positive. — " Do, and therein 
have well-being." " Shall not " characterized the 
rules of the old schoolmaster ; but in the new order 
of things doing the right takes the place of forbid- 
ding the wrong. " Happy are they that do his com- 
mandments." School regulations are educative, and 
hence positive. " Be prompt " takes the place of 
" Must not be tardy." " Be truthful " takes the place 
of " Must not tell lies." The school code is positive. 

3. School Regulations must be Few, and hence Gen- 
eral. — They are to be such as apply to all schools and 
all pupils. They must require lines of conduct and 
must cover all the ground. All specific cases come 
under the general laws, so that it may never become 



114 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

necessary to make new regulations. The school code 
must be general. 

4. School Laws must be Practical. — School regula- 
tions are working laws that lead to life habits. They 
enter into the warp and woof of school life. Teacher 
and pupils live the regulations, and thus develop into 
habits the school virtues. Impractical regulations 
can not be enforced, and laws not obeyed hurt and do 
not help. The school code must be practical. 

5. School Laws must be Popular. — School regula- 
tions must be sustained by public sentiment. They 
must have the hearty support of the pupils and the 
patrons as well as of the teacher. School laws must 
commend themselves to the common sense of all. 
Popular school regulations will have the moral sup- 
port of the patrons, and pupils will readily obey such 
laws. The school code must be popular. 

A school code harmonizing with these principles 
embodies the laws of school life. Each law is edu- 
cative, positive, general, practical, popular. Such 
regulations give definiteness to school government. 

f 1. Law of Quietude. 



Educative School Code. 



I 2. Law of Regularity. - 
^ 3. Law of Promptitude. 

4. Law of Propriety. 

5. Law of Duty. 



1. "Work quietly. — All education begins in silence, 
and the first school lesson the pnpil learns is that of 
quietude. Above the teacher's desk " Work quietly " 
should be written large ; but the quietness of pleasant 
work is meant, and not the breathless stillness pro- 
duced by fear. Teacher and pupils study to do things 
so softly as not to disturb others. Quietude must be 



EDUCATIVE SCUOOL REGULATIONS. 115 

the law of the schoolroom. Teacher and pupils study 
to avoid whatever disturbs others, such as whispering, 
noisy studying, noisy moving, fixing fires, and loud 
talking. Stillness favours study and characterizes the 
ideal school. 

2. Attend Eegularly. — Teacher and pupils must be 
regular in all school work. Persistency is the law of 
achievement. In school work, as in life work, regu- 
larity is fundamental. The habit of regularity pro- 
motes our physical, mental, and moral well-being. 
Regularity is a cardinal school virtue. 

3. Be Prompt. — Teacher and pupils must be prompt. 
Tlie habit of being on time is invaluable. The school 
trains pupils to work to a programme, and prompti- 
tude is counted a leading virtue. Promptitude char- 
acterizes the world's workers. Pegularity and promp^^ 
itude are the basis of order. They are the pillars Oi^ 
good school government. 

4. Act properly. — Teacher and pupils must act with 
propriety. We think of good manners as proper 
conduct. Order is eminently proper. During school 
hours it is proper that pupils should communicate 
through the teacher. Kindness is proper, earnest 
study is proper, decorum is proper. This law covers 
much of conduct and leads to the formation of many 
desirable habits. Conduct worthy of a pupil and 
worthy of a gentlewoman or a gentleman is required 
by the law of propriety. 

5. Do right. — Teacher and pupils must do right. 
The duty impulses are imperative. 1 may be polite, 
but I must be truthful. Duty is the corner stone of 
the art of school management. The habit of doing 



116 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

what we believe we ought to do is tlie essence of 
character growing. Conscience stands for duty, and 
doing right stands for law-abiding. 

Enacting- the Laws. 

The pupils, the teacher, and the school board 
make the school regulations. The school is an em- 
bryo State. The teacher and the pupils enact their 
own organic laws. Pupils are trained to make, obey, 
and sustain laws. School life thus prepares for real 
life. 

1. The Teacher submits the Regulations. — The 
teacher submits and explains the regulations one by 
one. The teacher is the friend and leader, and it is 
fitting that he should propose educative laws and 
make clear their desirability. Explanations and illus- 
trations are brief and plain. 

2. Teacher and Pupils adopt the Regulations. — 
They unite in enacting laws for the school. The pu- 
pils are led to favour the regulations and to realize in 
some degree their fitness. It is important to have 
even the younger pupils feel that they in a degree 
make the laws which they are to obey, just as the 
people make their laws. 

3. The School Board approves the Regulations. — It 
is well in small schools to have the school board pres- 
ent, but otherwise the action of the board approving 
the regulations can be reported to the pupils. The 
school board stands for the State, and regulations thus 
approved become State laws, as do bills passed by the 
Legislature and signed by the governor. 



EDUCATIVE SCHOOL REGULATIONS. 



117 



4. The Regulations are adopted One by One. — Some 
impressive method of adopting the code is helpful. 
It is the first day of school. The leading classes have 
been organized and lessons assigned. The afternoon 
recess is over. Pupils are still fresh and happy. 
The members of the school board or school commit- 
tee are present. Attention is called to the pro- 
gramme. Then in some attractive way the pupils are 
led to appreciate and adopt the school code. It is an 
impressive plan to draw on the board a picture of 
the hand, and to write the laws on the fingers as 
they are adopted. Close attention is thus secured 
and held. 




Teacher. — Pupils, that we may have good order 
and good work we must have good regulations. I 
think we can place on the fingers of one hand all the 
laws we shall need. I want you to unite with me in 



118 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

making our school regulations. Do you think the 
teacher should work quietly ? (Pupils all raise hands.) 
Should pupils work quietly ? (All hands are raised.) 
Will you join with me in making " Work quietly " 
one of our school regulations ? (All raise hands.) 
Now I will ask all who will unite witli me in adopt- 
ing " Work quietly " as one of our laws, to stand. I 
am glad to see you all stand. Now please raise your 
left hand. Now write on your little finger, as I do 
on the board, '' Work quietly." 

Each of the regulations is considered and adopted 
in a similar way. Thus in half an hour the school 
code may be intelligently and impressively adopted. 
The members of the school board will sign the pre- 
pared code in the presence of the school, thus giving 
their sanction and influence to the laws adopted. The 
code hand is left on the board, and as new pupils come 
in they are led to assent to the regulations. 

The pupils come to regard the regulations as their 
laws, and hence learn to cheerfully obey and readily 
sustain them. The true idea of school government is 
thus realized. The governing force is from within, 
and not from without. Pupils develop the power of 
self-control and the habit of law-abiding. The best 
possible foundation is laid for educative school gov- 
ernment and for good citizenship. 



EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 119 

CHAPTER XIII. 

PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 

The Teacher controls up to Self-control. — School 
management is eminently the art of developing habits 
of law-abiding self-control. The pupils learn to think 
of the school as a larger self, and of law-abiding as 
self-obedience. All wise school work is educative, 
but good conduct in obedience to self-imposed laws is 
the educational superlative. The practical realization 
of this vital truth will mark an educational epoch. 

Order is Cheerful Law-abiding. — Order is fitness. 
The school code, written or unwritten, voices the fit- 
ness of school conduct. The teacher leads the pupils 
to live the organic laws of the school and thus develop 
law-abiding habits. This is what is meant by good 
order. The old schoolmaster enforced his rules, but 
the true teacher governs up to self-government. 

Law of Quiet Work. 

We will learn to work quietly. — Eeal education 
begins in silence. To keep still is the first school 
lesson. Each one learns to so work as not to disturb 
others. School work is educative in the ratio of ear- 
nest work done quietly. How may we best develop 
habits of working quietly ? 

1. The Conditions must favour Quietude. We 
plan to make quiet work easy. Single adjustable 
desks are first thought of, as they secure isolation and 
comfort. Writing tablets as substitutes for slates are 



120 SCHOOL Mx^NAGEMEXT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

the next suggestion. Doors made to open and close 
silently are tlie third consideration. The hourly re- 
cess is fourth in the list, as it does so much to make 
^ quiet work delightful. Pure air, abundant light, and 
proper temperature are essentials. Fixing fires, get- 
ting drinks, sharpening pencils, asking questions, are 
recess incidents. Teacher, you will do well to make 
a long pause here. Tact will save you a world of 
trouble. 

2. By Exmnjple the Teacher must imjpress Quie- 
tude. By working quietly the teacher best leads the 
pupils to do quiet work. " Learn to work quietly " 
is written large above the teacher's desk, and the 
teacher embodies this law. He speaks and moves and 
works quietly. His management is energetic and his 
teaching is full of vigour, but he keeps in mind that 
it is the lightning, and not the thunder, that kills. 
He avoids boisterousness, clapping, pounding, stamp- 
ing, scolding. A loud teacher will likely have a noisy 
school. Such a teacher is a school nuisance and should 
be reformed or abated. The quiet, earnest teacher is 
a treasure. 

3. Utilize Altruistic Incentives to Quiet Worlt. 
Each pupil desires the good of all. IS'o one wishes to 
work injury to another. Working quietly helps and 

. does not hurt. It cultivates generosity and good will. 
Pupils abstain from whispering because it works in- 
jury to others, and each one comes to feel the school 
spirit — to help and not hurt. 

4. Training Pupils to UaMts.of Quietude is essen- 
tial. Lead the pupil to work quietly until quietude 
becomes a habit. Each one learns to study quietly, to 



EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 121 

move quietly, to speak softly. When tlie pnpil does 
anytliiDg noisily he is requested to do it again quietly. 
Soon the pupils become toned down, and come to 
speak softly and move quietly. They learn to abstain 
from v^^hispering and other disturbing noises, for these 
are felt as grating discords. 

5. Breaking up Noisy Habits is necessary. Ex- 
ample, altruistic incentives, and training will work 
w^onders in transforming noisy children into quiet 
pupils. In some cases, however, gentle reproof or 
some deprivation is necessary to work a cure. The 
pupil must be led to think and try. The desire and 
determination to have a delightfully quiet school is 
felt in every nerve and fibre of the school. Pupils 
and teacher work together to this end. 

6. Persistent Endeavour develops Quiet Habits. 
The teacher manages to have a cheerful and quiet school. 
Patiently, kindly, persistently the work goes on day 
by day and week by week. All learn to work quietly, 
and each one comes to feel a pleasure in quiet work. 
Our ideal is a quiet, cheerful, working school, and 
we all, pupils and teacher, feel proud when we realize 
our ideal. This is order ; this is real education. 

Law or Pegijlarity. 

We will strive to be Regular. — Eegularity char- 
acterizes the world's successful workers. The octo- 
genarian, in most cases, ascribes to regular habits his 
long life. The great leaders of men in all fields of 
high endeavour are regular workers. Pegularity is 
one of the cardinal school virtues, and to root regu- 
larity into a life habit is an important educational 



122 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

achievement. How may we best lead our pupils into 
habits of regularity ? 

1. Teacher Example is Most Potent. A teacher is 
a fit pupil leader when he is a model of regularity. 
He follows a well-considered plan, duly proportioning 
work, recreation, and rest. His school work is an ob- 
ject lesson of regularity. Pupils are bound to make 
the most of themselves, and so must be trained to 
regularity. They must cultivate the habit of regu- 
larity in their studies, in their reading, in their exer- 
cises, in their amusements, in their eating, and in their 
sleeping as well as in their school work. By his own 
example, and by the stories of Washington and Kant 
and Gladstone, the pupils are stimulated to form 
habits of regularity. 

2. Interest leads to Regularity. The school work 
is made so interesting and the lessons are made so 
helpful that pupils are unwilling to miss a single hour. 
The habit of regular attendance is formed. The 
pupils are led to realize that vigorous health depends on 
regular physical habits, and that mental vigour depends 
on regular habits of study. Especially are pupils im- 
pressed with the importance of regular attendance in 
order to have good school work. But, after all, inter- 
est is the great incentive. School stupidity works 
irregularity. 

3. The Tr regular m.ust sniffer the Conseguences. 
Irregularity hurts the individual and hurts the school. 
It is a misfortune in any case, and the irregular pupil 
must suffer the consequences. The habit of irregu- 
larity must in some way be cured. Self-incentives 
and altruistic motives and duty may be pressed, but in 



EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 123 

rare cases, after all, reproof, deprivation, or even tem- 
porary suspension, may become judicious. In some 
way irregularity must be broken up, and the pupil 
must be led to form the habit of regularity. 

Law of Promptitude. 

We will try to be prompt. — As a school virtue, the 
habit of promptitude deserves to be w^ritten in letters 
of gold. It is a great thing to be habitually on time. 
Promptitude is counted so important that schools vie 
with each other in the effort to secure it. How 
may we best educate our pupils to habits of prompti- 
tude ? 

1. Teacher Promptiticde incites Pupil Prompti- 
tude. " In seven years I have never been tardy," 
said an earnest teacher. " During my entire course in 
college I was never tardy," said Garfield. School is 
called and dismissed on time. Each exercise is begun 
and closed promptly. A prompt teacher will usually 
have a prompt school. The prompt teacher can con- 
sistently insist on pupil promptitude. Examples of 
promptitude from the lives of men of action will re- 
enforce the example of the teacher. 

2. Promptitude helps Others. Promptitude is a 
social as well as a personal virtue. Washington thus 
reproved a tardy subordinate : " Sir, j^ou may choose 
to waste your own time, but you have no right to 
waste ours." The prompt pupil helps others. In 
life, promptitude is a charm and tardiness an offense. 
In the home, meals are served on time. In the church, 
services begin and close on time and no laggard dis- 
turbs the w^orshippers. In the orderly school, teacher 



124 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

and pupils are habitually on time, and rarely does a 
tardy pupil interrupt the work. 

3. Training fixes the Habit of Promptitude. It 
is easy to be prompt when the habit is formed. You 
arouse the pupil to overcome all obstacles and be 
prompt during the first week. It is less difficult to 
secure promptitude during the second week, and still 
less during the third week. Soon the pupil becomes 
prompt from habit. The habit of being prompt has 
great advantages, as may be illustrated by life in- 
stances, showing the gains from promptitude and the 
misfortunes from dilatory habits. The railroad re- 
enforces the school in training to the habit of prompt- 
itude. 

4. Tardiness must he remedied. The habit of 
tardiness must be broken up by forming the habit of 
promptitude. We use all high motives, and still, in 
rare cases, we find it necessary to use gentle reproof, 
or some other helpful remedy. The wise teacher 
makes provision for special cases, so that pupils, 
though late, are not counted tardy up to a fixed time. 
One pupil in twenty may require some impressive 
lesson, but usually the spirit of the school will remedy 
avoidable tardiness. Teacher and pupils greet with 
smiles the prompt pupils, and each pupil becomes in- 
spired with the spirit of promptitude. The sense of 
honour as well as the sense of duty incites to prompti- 
tude. Mountains of difficulty will be overcome, and 
pupils will be on time. Promptitude in all the school 
work grows into habit, and the pupil is saved from 
the ruinous habit of tardiness. 



EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 125 

Law of Propeiety. 

"We will learn to act properly. — Propriety is fitness 
in conduct. It includes all we mean by gentle man- 
ners and good deportment and politeness and de- 
corum. It includes dress and address. Proper 
school conduct prepares for proper life conduct. Or- 
der is proper, and all disorder is improper. Cleanli- 
ness and neatness are proper. Industry, regularity, 
and respect for authority are proper. Law-abiding is 
proper, but lawlessness is improper. How can we 
best develop habits of propriety ? How can we best 
educate our pupils to be womanly and manly ? 

1. Exaimple impresses Propriety. Pupils imitate 
others, but most of all the teacher. The ideal teacher 
is a proper person and a model of propriety. In 
dress and in manner, in repose and in action, in the 
school and in society, the teacher is an embodiment 
of propriety. The teacher is what the pupil is to 
hecoone. 

2. Altruistic Motives worh the Best Hesults. — 
Politeness is treating others properly. Kindness and 
generosity and refinement are expressed in good man- 
ners. A gentleman is gentle and unselfish. It is al- 
ways proper to give another the preference. Teacher 
and pupils will think of many illustrative incidents. 
Opportunities occur at every step to make others 
happy by treating them properly. Apt stories are the 
most helpful lessons. 

3. Training fixes Habits of Pro;priety. Acting 
properly must be rooted into habit. As we learn to 
pronounce properly and talk properly, so we learn to 



126 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

act properly. Good school manners are carried to 
the home and become proper table manners and prop- 
er society manners. Immense patience is needed as 
well as tireless effort, for bad habits persist. In every 
way the ideal of proper conduct is elevated, and all 
inilnences are nsed to induce pupils to strive always 
to realize their ideal. 

4. Educative Heinedies hreah up Habits of Im- 
propriety. Pupils must unlearn improper habits. 
Bad manners must grow into good manners. We 
meet fearful discouragements. Pupils are loud and 
rough and selfish and cruel. Their manners at home 
and at school are horrid. How are we to transform 
these rough, untutored children into accomplished 
men and women ? We can and will accomplish this. 
In some way we must lead the most rude to try to act 
properly, and keep on so trying and so acting. We 
warmly approve and commend proper conduct, and 
thoroughly disapprove improper conduct. We lead 
the pupil to take himself in hand and go to work in 
earnest. One by one offensive habits are broken up 
and habits of proper conduct are acquired. But habits 
are stubborn things. However willing, pupils often 
need impressive helps. We appeal to all high incen- 
tives, but at last, in exceptional cases, we find it wise 
to use proper educative remedies. 

5. Persistency must succeed. Think of the work 
it takes to secure correct pronunciation ! How al- 
most infinitely more difficult is it to secure propriety 
in conduct in all the relations of life ! But, however 
adverse the pupil's environment, and however un- 
promising this uncouth specimen, we can not afford 



EDUCATIVE LAW-ABIDING. 127 

to fail. Wise and persistent effort has succeeded and 

will succeed. 

Law of Duty. 

We will try to do right. — Moral education blended 
with aesthetic and mental and physical culture is ideal. 
Right is accord with law. Be law-abiding, is our one 
imperative impulse. Our inmost self incites us to 
iind the right, to choose the right, and to do the right. 
This is conscience, and conscience stands for duty. 
Acting conscientiously develops conscience just as 
reasoning educates reason. As intellect, self discerns 
right, as conscience self feels right, and as will self 
does right. Moral culture roots the moral virtues into 
moral habits. Conscience is central. Moral conduct 
is the educational ultimate. How may we lead our 
pupils to act from a sense of duty ? 

1. Example is most effective. — The Great Teacher 
lived a perfect life. His is the ideal life. Good men 
try to live as Jesus lived, and so become moral leaders. 
" A teacher must have a good moral character," is the 
race conscience organized into law. We think of a 
teacher as embodying in a good degree the moral vir- 
tues, and hence we intrust to him our precious children. 
In every impulse and word and act the ideal teacher 
is pure and honest and generous and just and truth- 
ful. He does right because it is right. By his life 
the teacher does most to lead his pupils to do right. 
His own example is re-enforced by examples from the 
lives of illustrious men and women. 

2. Moral Teaching is Fimdamental. Bight ideas 
occasion right impulses and thus become right acts. 
But moral lessons must be concrete, and duty must be 



128 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

taught from life. Hygienic laws are taught in acts. 
The pupil ought to be temperate as well as truthful. 
The moral virtues are presented in stories and inci- 
dents. Biography and history are rich in the best 
lessons. Right ideas lead to right impulses and right 
acts. The pupil must know duty in order to feel 
duty and to do duty. Duty is taught incidentally 
in all school work, but special conduct lessons are of 
the highest possible value. 

3. Duty is Positive. Obedience to parents is duty. 
Law-abiding is duty. It is right to tell the truth and 
act honestly. We keep before the pupils the moral 
virtues, and rarely refer to vices. As in art ideal 
forms are kept in view, so in morals ; the moral vir- 
tues are kept before the pupil. Pupils become so in- 
terested in honesty that dishonesty is not thought of. 
They learn to so love the moral virtues that vices be- 
come hateful. Doing right educates conscience. 

4. Training converts Example and Precept into 
Habits. The teacher leads the pupil to do right and 
to keep on doing right. Thus moral habits are formed 
and fixed. Moral teaching and moral acts not carried 
over into moral habits are wasted. Moral habits, as 
a fact, are more readily formed than evil habits, for 
conscience is on the side of right. Moral training 
makes duty impulses imperative in the life of the pupil. 

5. Educative Punish^nent is a Moral Necessity. 
The aim of school punishment is to lead the wayward 
back to the path of duty and keep them in it. Pun- 
ishment is meant to impress the fact that the way of 
the transgressor is hard, and that suffering follows 
lawlessness. The disobedient pupil learns through 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 129 

suffering that only the pure in heart, the law-abiding, 
are happy or can be happy. Our loving Father so 
planned the universe that all violations of law call for 
punishment. When we violate physical laws we suf- 
fer and so reform. When a child violates home laws 
or school laws it is saved through suffering. When 
we act dishonestly we feel remorse and the disap- 
proval of loved ones, and so suffer back to duty. God, 
states, parents, teachers, so plan that transgressors 
bring on themselves the suffering necessary to reforma- 
tion. We in love so manage that the offender suffers 
in order that he may get right and keep right. 

6. Moral Culture must he persistent. — Persistent 
endeavour on the part of the teacher and pupils will 
surely fix the habit of well doing. This is the great- 
est thing in education. The pupil learns to place duty 
above everything else, and comes to feel that it is 
indeed better to be right than to be president or a 
millionaire.* 



CHAPTEK XIY. 

PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 

Punishment stands for Remedial Measures. — The 

physician prescribes medicines as remedies for diseases 
caused by lawlessness. The Great Physician prescribes 
spiritual remedies for sin-sick souls. The educator 
prescribes educative remedies for wayward pupils. In 
all these cases repentance conditions restoration. The 

* Read Chapter XXVI in connection with Chapter XIII. 
10 



130 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

patient comes to obey law, and so gets well. Tlie 
sinner ceases to hate and learns to love, and so is 
saved. The wayward pupil turns and becomes law- 
abiding, and so is restored. This is repentance. Law- 
abidino; is the condition of health. Remedial school 
agencies are educative when they induce a change of 
heart and a change of conduct. The teacher, next to 
the parent, is the pupil's truest friend. Kindly he 
leads his pupils to abandon hurtful ways and walk in 
the paths of peace. He thinks of punishment as a 
means of helping pupils to cease doing wrong and be- 
gin doing right. 

Educative Suffering works E-eformation. — We marvel 
much when we grasp the philosophy of punishment. 
Through weakness we yield to temptation, but through 
suffering we grow strong to resist temptation. We 
so manage that the offending pupil so suffers as to 
quicken conscience. Educative suffering leads him 
back to duty and so makes him strong to choose and 
do the right. There is absolutely no other way to 
work reformation. This is the divine plan. Educa- 
tive punishments ^re not pleasant, but they work the 
peaceful fruits of righteousness. 

PRINCIPLES EELATIXa TO PuNISHMENT. 

Principles determining School Punishments. — Why 

do we punish ? When should we punish ? How 
should we punish ? The wise teacher ponders long 
over these questions. Even light punishments are in- 
finite in their consequences, ^o wonder that the 
angels pause here. ISTo wonder that our schools, our 
armies, and even our penitentiaries have abandoned 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 131 

corporal punishments. 'No wonder that dilettanti 
shudder at the thought of school punishment of any 
kind. But offences will come, and remedies must be 
used. The earnest teacher, like the earnest physician, 
asks for light and courage. "What are the teachings 
of human nature and experience ? Each teacher will 
glean for himself, but as suggestive, attention is called 
to some fundamental and guiding trutlis. School pun- 
ishments, it must be kept in mind, are always remedial 
and self-inflicted. We do not punish the wayward, 
but we so manage that they punish themselves. 

1. Ptmishments should he Educative. They 
should tend to quicken conscience and strengthen 
will. Love casts out fear, and the punishment works 
in the offender's heart the resolve to cease wayward- 
ness and become law-abiding. Judicious punishments 
foster self-control and a love of right. They incite 
the pupil to pause and change his course. Educative 
punishments cherish law-abiding. 

2. Punishments shoidd he Beformatory. Will 
this particular punishment help this particular of- 
fender ? Arthur swears during recess. I give a les- 
son to the school on swearing as a bad habit. I re- 
prove Arthur privately, and he promises to try to 
break up the swearing habit. The riglit punishment 
properly administered helps the pupil to reform. 
The wise teacher, like the skilful dentist, studies to 
avoid occasioning unnecessary suffering. Reforma- 
tory punishments work repentance. 

3. The Punishment should he natural. It should 
follow as a natural consequence of the offence. God 
has so planned Nature and man that punishment every- 



132 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

where follows transgression. Herbert Spencer insists 
that parents and teachers should carry out the divine 
plan. As the teacher gains deeper insight into pupil 
nature, he more and more discovers the fitness of 
consequential punishments. Pupils feel the justice 
of such punishments, and they are educative and re- 
formatory. The relation of the punishment to the 
fault needs to be profoundly studied. James during 
recess abuses the smaller boys. As a natural conse- 
quence he is deprived for a time of the privilege of 
playing with the other pupils and is sent out to play 
alone. This remedy is a natural consequence and 
works repentance. After two or three days James 
requests restoration ; he is cured. But even the most 
capable teachers are sometimes compelled to use other 
than consequential punishments. 

4. The Punishment should he Just. The degree 
of severity should bear a just relation to the offence. 
The sense of justice is very active in pupils, and un- 
deserved as well as undue punishment is resented as 
an injury. The boy kept in for putting his hands in 
his pockets becomes sullen, and is hurt and not helped. 
In punishment it is always safe to err on the side of 
mercy. Some one has well said : " We would not ex- 
clude punishment as a means for establishing good 
order, for punishment is necessary ; but, to be ade- 
quate, it must always be just, and the offender must 
feel the justice, otherwise its force upon him is lost.. 
Let every pupil feel the reasonableness and justice 
of every punishment. Bring out every manly and 
womanly attribute, every lofty and unselfish am- 
bition." 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. I33 

5. Punishments should he Mild and Rare. The 
skilful teacher rarely punishes, and usually finds gen- 
tle reproof or mild restraint all-sufficient. Sometimes 
deprivations and even suspensions become necessary. 
Through royal motives the pupils are led to royal 
conduct. 1^0 one thinks of medicine except in cases 
of sickness, and no one thinks of punishment except 
in case of lawlessness. No punishment must become 
customary. 

Helpful School Punishments. 

These are such as tend to work reformation. Paul 
was thankful that his erring brethren sorrowed to 
reformation. The pupil has gone wrong ; the pur- 
pose of punishment is to lead him to cease wrong- 
doing and begin rightdoing. Suffering is educative 
when it works reform. Nature cures, but educative 
punishments, like suitable medicines, help to produce 
curative conditions. They work in the pupil's heart 
a love of law and an aversion to lawlessness. They 
induce the determination to cease offending and to 
become law-abiding. Corporal punishment in most 
cases hurts and does not help, because it awakens hate 
rather than love. All punishments which tend to an- 
tagonize must be forever abandoned. Helpful school 
punishments accord with the above principles and 
tend to pupil betterment. 

Silent Disapproval. 

Teacher and pupils strongly approve law-abiding. 
The pupil who habitually works quietly, attends regu- 
larly, executes promptly, acts properly, and does right, 



134 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

is a true hero. Teacher and pupils thoroughly disap- 
prove of lawbreaking. Every nerve and fibre of the 
school express disapproval of the noisy, tardy, un- 
mannerly, selfish, cowardly, lying pupil. Kindness 
and this thorough disapproval tend to work reforma- 
tion. The wayward pupil suffers, reflects, reforms. 
In our best schools, as in good society, silent disap- 
proval is the great remedy. School sentiment wisely 
directed is a helpful punishment. 

Repkoof. 

This is the one safe, salutary, available, effective 
school punishment. Pupil faults usually come of 
thoughtlessness rather than of viciousness. Gentle 
reproof gives pause, and opens the heart to all good 
influences. Reproof is like medicine : it does not 
cure, but it removes interferences and stimulates right 
effort, and so assists ISTature. The kind teacher, as a 
true friend, takes the penitent pupil by the hand and 
gently leads him into right ways. Reproof may be 
general, or private, or public. 

1. General Reproof. The offender is reached 
through the offence. Mary has been fussy, and has re- 
peatedly disturbed others by whispering. At the 
close of class or school the teacher says : '' One of you 
has failed to ^vork quietly, and so has disturbed others 
as well as myself. We all agreed to work quietly, 
and no one can afford to be a lawbreaker and so in- 
jure himself and others. I earnestly ask you to 
think." A pupil so considerately dealt with does 
think, and resolves to reform. Other pupils are 
strengthened. In my own extended experience I 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 135 

have found silent disapproval and general reproof tlie 
onl}^ punishments required in the management of nine- 
teen pupils out of twenty. From its very nature 
general reproof is the most helpful of all school pun- 
ishments. There is no limit to the helpful ways in 
which it may be used. 

2. Private Reproof. This is the punishment com- 
mended by the Master : " If thy brother offend thee, 
go and tell him alone." You have failed to reach 
Andrew. You ask him to take a walk with you. 
Kindly, as his friend, you tell him of his faults. You 
greatly desire to have him do right. Will he? 
Teacher and pupil stand heart to heart. The boy's 
heart is touched and he is saved. Even with hard- 
ened offenders private reproof is marvellously effect- 
ive. In this, as in all educative punishments, love is 
the curative agency. The warm-hearted teacher 
through kindness leads wayward pupils back to duty. 

3. Pnhlic Reproof. The offence has been public 
and obtrusive. Again and again William has used 
profane language during recesses. You have failed 
to reform him. You give lessons on proper language 
and on the utter baseness of profanity. You mention 
William's bad habit, and request the pupils to aid him 
to overcome it. Public reproof is a powerful but 
dangerous punishment, and should be used sparingly 
and with great discretion. Even when offences are 
public, private reproof may prove most effective. 
" Keprove not a child in the presence of another," is 
a safe and sacred rule. It is a fearful thing to break 
down the pupil's self-respect and blunt his regard for 
public opinion. The sense of honour must be cher- 



136 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ished. The pupil in all cases must feel tliat all are 
his friends, and that he suffers for his own good. 

4. But Public Opinion has its Place. If the 
pupil can not be moved by either general or private 
reproof, a severer punishment becomes necessary. At 
a favourable moment the teacher presents the matter 
to the school. It has become his painful duty to re- 
prove publicly one of their number. He has laboured 
earnestly to induce Charles to do right, but has so far 
failed. He mentions his name, not to wound his feel- 
ings, but to arouse him, and to give all the pupils an 
opportunity to aid him to correct his faults. All 
agree to help. The offender feels that he is in the 
hands of friends who mean to do him good. He feels 
ashamed of his conduct, and resolves to reform. The 
tremendous moral influence of the school strengthens 
him. In the effort to aid another each pupil is bene- 
fited. Silently but surely the work goes on. The 
erring one feels, reflects, resolves, yields to the power 
of public sentiment and the promptings of his better 

nature. 

Privation. 

Restraint and deprivation supplements kindness. 
Lawless pupils must learn to respect law. Abused 
privileges are forfeited and slighted opportunities 
are lost, but reformation must work restoration. 

1. Deprive of Pecess. Pupils greatly enjoy the 
common recess, and to be deprived of it is a severe 
punishment. Hugh would get into fights nearly 
every recess. For two weeks the teacher sent him 
out to play alone. He promised reformation and 
kept his promise. The sense of justice is very strong 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. I37 

in pupils, and must be respected. All feel entitled to 
recess, and no one should be deprived of it except for 
hurtful conduct during recess, or for some other 
equally good reason. 

2. Deprive of the Privilege of going Home with 
the Others. A boy mistreats younger pupils, is quarrel- 
some, or uses bad language. He is detained and sent 
home by himself. Keeping after school is often hurt- 
ful and seldom justifiable. In such instances as the 
above it is clearly a natural punishment. 

3. Deprive of Position. Irregular pupils and pu- 
pils who habitually whisper forfeit seats. ]^egligent 
and irregular pupils forfeit their class standing and 
drop into lower and lower classes. A pupil who does 
not try is deprived of the teacher's approval. In a 
word, privation of a privilege follows its abuse. The 
pupil recognises the justice of the punishment, re- 
fl.ects, reforms. 

Suspension. 

Judicious suspension induces consideration and so 
tends to work reformation. A pupil without a school 
is like a man without a country. The pupil suffers, 
and his lonesomeness is helpful. But the suspension 
must be evidently just and natural. Insubordination, 
contaminating influences, gross immorality, general 
worthlessness, and chronic violations of the school 
code may justify suspension. Even in the absence of 
specific law, the teacher's position gives him the au- 
thority to suspend. Still, this punishment should be 
used sparingly, and, as a rule, only with the older 
pupils. Children under ten years of age should rarely 
be suspended. Wise discretion must be exercised. 



138 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The teacher seeks to save. We give one actual case 
of suspension. 

James proved insubordinate. The teacher kindly 
suspended him for an indefinite time. After a week 
he returned, made a manly apology, and began a 
course of good conduct. 

Sometimes suspension embitters and so injures ; 
suspension must be managed with great skill. As in 
all cases of punishment, there is need of good sense 
and a good heart. Frequent suspensions indicate a 
weak and inefficient teacher. One with large gov- 
erning power seldom needs to suspend a pupil. The 
period of suspension may be made specific or left in- 
definite. Experience shows that we get the best re- 
sults from brief suspensions. Whenever a suspended 
pupil desires restoration and complies with the condi- 
tions, he is to be restored and welcomed back. Expe- 
rience shows that where corporal punishment is not 
used more pupils are suspended, but that the good 
ejects are largely in favour of suspension. 

Expulsion. 

Expulsion severs the connection of the pupil with 
the school. Suspension looks to the good of the pu- 
pil as well as the good of the school, but expulsion 
merely removes the incorrigible. Therefore 

1. Expulsion can not l)e classed as a School Pun- 
ishment. " After all other means have failed, a pupil 
may be expelled for disobedient, refractory, or incor- 
rigible bad conduct." Thus decides the Supreme 
Court of Illinois. Expulsion is not reformatory. It 
may be a school necessity, but it is not a school pun- 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 139 

isliment. " A pupil may be expelled for gross im- 
morality or a persistent violation of the school regu- 
lations." (School law of most States.) This law is 
sustained by the courts and by public opinion. 

2. Expulsion is the Act of the School Board, 
never of the Teacher. Principals of graded schools 
and faculties of higher institutions are usually author- 
ized to suspend the wayward and expel the incorrigi- 
ble. The movement in some cities to provide special 
schools for these incorrigible pupils can not be too 
strongly commended. 

3. Expulsion is an Expedient to relieve the Schools 
of the Corrupt and the Unworthy. The State quar- 
antines against epidemics, and the school quarantines 
against moral pestilence. Rare, indeed, are the cases 
that justify this terrible punishment. Ponder long 
before cutting off opportunity and hope, even from 
the most unworthy. Act as if the unfortunate one 
w^ere your own brother or sister or child. 

Hurtful School Punishments. 

Punishments not Educative are Hurtful. — The de- 
vices of the old schoolmaster for pupil torture were 
marvellous. Corporal punishment in all its hideous 
forms — the dunce block, the gag, the dark closet, the 
rod, the strap, the ferule, the cat-o'-nine-tails — are but 
samples. But our civilization has outgrown debasing 
and cruel punishments, and the school " boss " with 
his " boss " methods has disappeared. The teacher is 
no longer the master, but the friend. Suffering that 
does not tend to work reformation is now condemned 



140 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

as monstrous. But punishments not educative still 
linger in some schools, and hurt and do not help. 

CoKPOKAL Punishment. 

1. Corporal Punishment is not Educative. For 
this reason it must go. At the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century it was universal and popular, but at 
the close of the century it has not only become amaz- 
ingly unpopular, but it has virtually disappeared as a 
school punishment. It is not now used in our col- 
leges nor in our high schools, nor in the first and 
second grades of our primary schools, nor in our 
kindergartens. It is rarely used in the seventh or 
eighth grades of our grammar schools. In the four 
remaining grades, as in our rural schools, its use is 
becoming rarer and rarer. Some countries, like 
France, and many cities, have abolished the rod. 
Public sentiment is setting strongly against the use 
of the rod, and with the present century corporal 
punishment, it is believed, will utterly disappear from 
our schools. 

2. Transition Period. Grant the right but avoid 
the use. For half a century this expresses the pre- 
vailing attitude of educators. The author long advo- 
cated this view as many educators still do. But our 
advancing civilization will not much longer tolerate 
the use of the rod in our schools. The widest expe- 
rience demonstrates that in our times corporal pun- 
ishment hurts and does not help. The suffering is 
inflicted^ and in most cases does not even tend to work 
reformation ; it tends to alienate pupil and parent. 

3. Extreme Cases. Some educators insist on the 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. l^^l 

retention of the rod, to be used in extreme cases. 
This position is admirably presented by Dr. E. E. 
White : " When a child rebels against the authority 
of the parent or the teacher, the use of the rod to 
compel obedience ma}^ be justifiable. Rebellion may 
not only justify, but may make necessary, the use of 
corporal punishments. When the rod is used at all, 
it is for the insubordinate or the rebellious. The ex- 
istence of insubordination or rebellion marks the 
limits of natural penalties and makes a well-defined 
place for force." Dr. White's limitations substan- 
tially abolish the rod. Good management seeks to 
prevent rebellion. When insubordination actually 
occurs it must be overcome by v^ise treatment. The 
rod, like war, leaves all issues unsettled. Patiently, 
rationally, as the wise physician treats the diseased 
patient, so the judicious teacher treats the rebellious 
pupil. In these extreme cases suspension is every 
way a better remedy than flogging. 

3. Gradual Disuse. Gradual abolition of the rod 
is best. The educational world is surely coming to 
agree with Dr. W. T. Harris : 

"I think that better discipline can be obtained without the use 
of the rod than with it. 1 should not approve of even permitting 
corporal punishment in the high school. 

" A word further in explanation of my somewhat conservative 
ground on the subject of corporal punishment. I have known 
the absolute and unconditional prohibition of corporal punish- 
ment to produce evil effects at first. It is better for the teacher 
to abolish corporal punishment than for the laws of the city to 
prohibit it unconditionally. There are many pupils who, through 
bad previous training, have come to order their lives in the fear of 
punishment. These pupils will demoralize a school if the prac- 
tice of corporal punishment is prohibited unconditionally. But 



14:2 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

such pupils can be provided for by suspending them from school 
temporarily, and restoring them only on trial or on probation. 
Such temporary suspension of ill-behaved pupils has the most 
salutary effect." 

4. The Extreme Position. Corporal punishment 
is considered criminal. Col. F. W. Parker for a long 
time has contended for the immediate and absolute 
abolition of corporal punishment. He says, " 1 
would place corporal punishment and reward giving 
as in the highest degree criminal." A rapidly increas- 
ing army of teachers are coming to agree with Col. 
Parker, and were "hurtful" substituted for "crim- 
inal " in his denunciation, many more educators would 
indorse his extreme position. Strange phenomena ! 
national beings cling to things that hurt and do not 
help. The gambler clings to his cards, the drunk- 
ard to his cups, and the old schoolmaster to his hurt- 
ful practices. But reform and progress characterize 
civilization ; we somehow outgrow the antiquated, 
and the old grows into the new. 

Feae-inspieing Punishment. 

Dread, like a nightmare, depresses pupil effort. 
Perfect love casts out fear, and peace comes to those 
who trust. The Christian does not fear, for Jesus is 
his loving friend. The pupil does not fear, for he 
loves and trusts his teacher. This is the spirit of the 
new education. But the old schoolmaster ruled 
through fear, and unfortunately the boss spirit still lin- 
gers in many of our schools, and teachers often substi- 
tute other dread-inspiring devices for the dread of the 
rod. Who can estimate the torture occasioned by the 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 143 

dread of low grades, of demerit marks, of failure in 
examinations? By constant harping on tliese cruel 
devices many teachers make school life a burden. 
Fear paralyzes effort. Teacher, your dread of non- 
election wastes much of your own energies, and you 
feel it as a cruel torture. Let this teach you wisdom. 
First of all study to make your pupils happy. Inter- 
est is better than dread, and leading is better than 
bossing. 

Degrading and Ceuel Punishments. 

Such punishments are monstrous. A self is great- 
er than a world. The self ideal must be cherished to 
the utmost, and the pupil must be led to think highly 
of himself. Kidiculing and belittling a pupil is as 
criminal as the old-time dunce block and dunce cap. 
Pupil betterment is your ideal. You do well to re- 
ject with abhorrence any punishment that tends to 
lessen manliness and the sense of honour. 

Cruel punishments are simply barbarous. Suffer- 
ing in some form may be necessary to work reform, 
but suffering that hurts and does not help is cruel. 
Like the dentist, the teacher studies to avoid inflicting 
unnecessary pain. To place red pepper on the tongue 
as a punishment for whispering is an outrage. It is 
cruel to deprive a pupil of his recess, or to keep the 
weary pupil for an hour after school, or prolong an 
examination for three hours, or impose impossible 

tasks. 

Unjust Punishments. 

Often innocent pupils are condemned on circum- 
stantial evidence. More frequently the punishment 



144: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

is unnecessarily severe. Pupils are exceedingly sensi- 
tive to justice, and unjust punishments generate bit- 
terness and resentment. Be just ^ is one of the lav^^s 
of the school, and must not be violated by the teacher. 
It can not help even to mention the many hurtful 
punishments still in current use. " Everything to 
help and nothing to hurt " is the vital test. The ear- 
nest teacher, like the able physician, studies to find 
the remedy that will save. 

SUMMARY. 

In closing the subject of punishments it seems fitting to em- 
phasize a few items. 

First, no punishment must become customary. Order is the 
rule, and conduct demanding punishment is the exception. The 
teacher, as best he can, leads the erring pupil back to law-abiding, 
adapting the remedy to the case. 

Second, the change from " hoss " rule to law must he gradual. 
A teacher accustomed to govern by the rod and by marking is 
as helpless as an infant when he lays aside these barbarisms, 
and tries to control up to self-control. Bossism is better than 
anarchy. 

Tfiird, the teacher must not suffer too much anxiety because 
the pupil goes wrong. The management must lead the pupil to 
worry over his faults, and so reform. Nothing can be worse for 
the school than for the teacher to worry, and lose sleep and appe- 
tite and hope. Each case must be met calmly and hopefully. It 
is the pupil who has sinned and who must suffer. The teacher 
feels a deep satisfaction in restoring the wayward ones. 

Fourth, corporal punishment must go. It must give place to 
rational control, for many reasons : 

1. Corporal punishment is not educative. Few teachers suc- 
ceed in making it work reformation. From its nature it gener- 
ates bitterness and fear. It is a low incentive and does not tend 
to ennoble. As a rule, it hurts and does not help. 

2. Better discipline is secured without the use of the rod. So 
testify the world's educators. The appeal to high incentives 



EDUCATIVE PUNISHMENT. 145 

tends to easy control. The rule of the rod is beset with difficul- 
ties, and is never satisfactory. 

3. Public sentiment condemns the use of the rod in our 
schools. Corporal punishment has been abolished in the army, 
the navy, and the penitentiary. Enlightened public opinion de- 
mands its discontinuance in our schools. Corporal punishment 
breeds trouble even when parents consent. 

4. Corporal punishment hurts teacher and pupil. It unfits the 
teacher for understanding the pupil and for governing through 
ennobling motives. It unavoidably weakens his influence. One 
teacher in a hundred may use the rod without injuring the pupil, 
but to the ninety and nine it is a dangerous experiment. 

5. Worst of all, the use of the rod militates against the study 
and use of educative motives. Teachers can make the pupils 
obey, and so are content. They will discuss corporal punish- 
ment, but will not discuss altruistic and duty motives. 



EDUCATIVE SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY HINTS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

X. Educative Governing Power.— What is meant by govern- 
ment ? by school government ? by governing power ? What are 
the ends in school government? the agencies? the devices? Why 
should the teacher be qualified ? authorized ? sustamed ? Is the 
teacher born, or made ? Is governing power a natural gift ? May 
it be developed 1 What do you mean by elements of governing 
power? Why should you be what you wish your pupils to be- 
come ? Discuss, as elements of governing power, Character ; Cul- 
ture ; Pupil Insight ; Teaching Power ; Heart Power ; Will Power ; 
System; Tact; Bearing. Is teacher governing power the true 
basis of educative school government? 

XL Educative Incentives. — Explain the function of motives in 
the soul economy. Why must you lead pupils through motives ? 
Show that the motive is the explanation of the act. Describe the 
three classes of pupils. How will you treat each? Prove that 
a teacher is responsible for the conduct of his pupils. Do you de- 
termine the motives of your pupils? How? Why is teaching 
the most responsible of all professions ? What do you mean by 
educative motives? by debasing motives? Why should school 
11 



14:6 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

motives be helpful ? Why should you root out hurtful incentives f 
What do you mean by hurtful motives! Show the effects of 
yielding to the appetites ; to the passions ; to selfishness. What do 
you mean by low motives! Why do you not use the rod? per-cent 
marks ! rewards ! prizes ! What do you mean by high motives ? by 
the highest motives! Describe the royal egoistic motives; the 
highest motives. Through what motives do you lead your pupils! 
Why do you rely most on the sense of duty ! How do you develop 
the duty habit ! Describe the battles of the motives. 

XIL Educative Regulations. — Is your school an embryo repub- 
lic ! Do you govern up to self-government ! Compare the boss, 
the goody-goody teacher, and the true teacher. Why should 
school regulations be educative ! positive ! general ! practical ! popu- 
lar ! Explain the law of quietude ; of regularity ; of promptitude ; 
of propriety; of duty. Describe your method in enacting the 
school code. Give some of the advantages of getting the pupils 
to help make the laws. Why do you have the code approved by 
the school board ! 

Xin. Educative Law-abiding. — Will the plan of securing good 
conduct through self-imposed laws mark an educational epoch ? 
Show that order is cheerful law-abiding. Compare the boss en- 
forcing his rules and the true teacher leading his pupils up to 
self-government. Give your method in educating your pupils to 
work quietly ; to be regular ; to be prompt ; to act properly ; to do 
right. Why do you look well to securing the most helpful con- 
ditions! Show the influence of example ; of precept; of training. 
Why do you count moral culture the educational superlative ! 

XIV. Educative Punishments. — Show that punishment is a 
moral necessity ; that it is a remedial agency ; that it works refor- 
mation. State the philosophy of punishment. W^hy should school 
jmnishments be educative! reformatory! consequential? just? 
mild! rare! What is meant by helpful school punishments! What 
cures! Show how wayward pupils are helped by silent disap- 
proval ; by general reproof ; by private reproof ; by public reproof ; 
by deprivations ; by suspension. What can you say about expul- 
sion! What do you mean by hurtful school punishments! Why 
do you oppose corporal punishment! fear-inspiring punishments? 
degrading punishments! cruel punishments! unjust punishments? 
State the four items in the summary ; discuss the five reasons for 
discontinuing the use of the rod. 



PART IV. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH 

EDUCATIVE CLASS MANAGEMENT AND 

CLASS WORK. 



CHAPTER XV. — Pupil Improvement through Skilful Class 
Organization and Control. 
XVI. — Pupil Improvement through Educative 
Class Methods and Devices. 
XVII. — Pupil Improvement through Helpful School 

AND Class Tactics. 
XVIII. — Pupil Improvement through Blending of 
Oral and Book Class Work. 
XIX. — Pupil Improvement through Good Teaching 
IN Lieu of Extraneous Incentives. 
147 



r XV. 

The Class 

AND 

CluASSIFI- 

CATION. 



XVI. 

Educa- 
tive 
Class 
Work. 



XVII. 

Class 
Tactics. 



XVIII. 

Oral and 
Book 
Work. 



XIX. 

Good 
I. Teaching. 



I. School eve- j 1. Individualism. 

lution, ( 2. Classiflcatioii. M. True class. 

2. Fitness the test. 

n. Thecla^s i^»1.a"r- 



in. Class hygiene. 

IV. Happy class control. 

V. Scheme for classification. 



I 5. The heart, school life. 
L6. Advantages. 

1. Unitize the schools. 

2. Rural schools. 

3. Graded schools. 

4. High schools. 



n. Characteristics of. , 



III. Class methods. 



IV. Class devices. 



1. 



( Criteria. 
VI. Classifying. < Tentative. 

( Promotion and demotion. 
I. The recitation— Class vi^ork. 

1. Spontaneity. 2. Concealing, 
3. Review. 4. Lesson plan. 
5. Drill. 6. Prereview. 

1. Unity. f 1. Teaching question, 

2. Individual. 2. Conversation. 

3. Investiga- -, 3. Topic, 
tion method. I 4. Discussion. 

[5. Lecture. 
The class. 2. Written work. 8. Lab 
oratory work. 4. Diagrams. 5, 
Reporting. 6. Teaching. 7. Con- 
[ cert work. 8. Original devices. 
I. School and class tactics. Objects. 
n. Principles— fitness, uniformity, economy, 
in. Electric clock ; signals ; movements. 

IV. Calling and dismissing school. 

V. Calling and dismissing classes. 

VI. Fitness in class tactics. 

VII. Fitness in board tactics. 

VIII. Fitness in concert tactics. 

IX. Gains by sensible tactics. ^ ^ PHmarv 

I. The old education; the new education. | o T„fo».^^<i;ofa 
n. Proportion of oral and book work in ^ | ^^I^^^ZT 

^2: Literature. U- CoUege. 

3. Science, 
j 4. Mathematics. 
[5. Art. 

1. Objects. 

2. Story. 

3. Illustration. 
[4. Example. 

11, Assigning lesson. 
2. Prereview. 
3. Book study. 
4. Book— class work. 

f 1. Educative. 
I. Written recitations, in lieu of test 
examinations. 



III. 



Oral and book 
work in — 



IV. Oral teaching. 



V. Book teaching. 



II. 



Good teaching in lieu of mark- 
ing. 



in. Educative records and reports. 



IV. Promotion and 
graduation. 



12. Occasional, 
3. Helpful. 
4. All-sufBcient. 
fl. High incentive. 
I 2. Effective. 
1 3. Sufficient. 
[ 4. Economic. 
fl. Attendance. 

2. Conduct. 

3. Scholarship. 

4. Reports. 

1. Follows satisfactorj' work. 

2. Elementary certificate. 
■ 3. High-school diploma. 

4. College diploma. 

5. No marking; no test examinations. 

148 



PAET FOUETH. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE 
CLASS MANAGEMENT 



CHAPTEK XY. 

THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTEOL. 



^5 



School Evolution. — Popular education is modern. 
True, some beginnings had been made in other times, 
but at the opening of the nineteenth century the na- 
tions had not yet entered upon the work of educating 
the masses. Those of us who have lived in the schools 
for four or five decades have been a part of our school 
evolution from its crude beginnings up to its highest 
stage of development. As pupils we began with the 
stage of individualism and advanced to the stage of 
classification ; and as teachers we began with the stage 
of gradation and are advancing in the stages of spe- 
cialization and department teaching. 

1. Individualisin. This was the first stage in 
school evolution. The people created the schools. 
The young were grouped and placed under masters. 
Each group of pupils with its master was a school. 

149 



150 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The master was boss and was infallible. Each pupil 
was given his task and was called up to say his lesson. 
That was all. For one or two years the child puzzled 
over the alphabet and said his A B C's. For two or 
three more years the child puzzled over the mysteries 
of the spelling book and said his spelling lessons. 
This was all ; no reading, no object lesson but the 
ferule, no music but the rod. The older pupils were 
given tasks in reading, in writing, and in ciphering, 
and were sometimes called up one by one to say their 
lessons. Individualism was the characteristic of the 
earliest stage of school evolution. 

2. ClassiJiGation. This was the second stage in 
our elementary school evolution. Some daring teacher 
ventured to group his pupils into classes ; he was 
speedily dismissed. The teachers and the pupils bit- 
terly opposed the innovation. It was well enough in 
college, but it would never do in common schools. 
But the young men who had been to college favoured 
classification. They showed that classification enabled 
the teacher to do tenfold more work. Slowly classifi- 
cation worked its way into all our schools and indi- 
vidualism disappeared. Occasionally we still hear 
some belated teacher cry, " Back to individualism ! " 
But, from the nature of true evolution, all that is 
good in the old reappears in the new. Individualism 
as a phase of school work has disappeared forever, 
but the helpful treatment of the individual pupil per- 
meates all approved school work. Classification is 
the characteristic of the second stage of school evo- 
lution. 



THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 151 

The Class. 

In the school sense, a class is a group of pupils 
who can work together. In our ideal class the pupils 
are of equal attainments and of equal ability. At the 
best, we must be content to approximate our ideal, 
and in classifying we must substitute similar for equal ; 
the one safe test is, ability to work together. Can the 
pupil do with greatest profit the work of the class ? 

1. Pupils are grouped to facilitate Work. Ability 
to do the work is the test. A true class is a group of 
pupils prepared to work together. The pupils in a 
class may differ in attainments, in ability, in age, but 
they must be able to work together. Pupils who can 
do well more advanced work, are promoted, and pupils 
who can not do profitably the work of the class are 
dropped to a lower class. We think of a class as a 
company of fellow-workers interested in the same sub- 
jects and capable of moving forward together. To 
place or keep a pupil in a class too high or too low 
for him is weakness and not kindness. 

2. The Work of the Class is ada])ted to the Pupils. 
We place in a class the pupils best prepared to work 
together ; still we find we have in the class three 
grades — bright, average, and slow pupils. We plan 
the work of the class with reference to the average 
pupils, usually two thirds of the class. We give the 
bright pupils, one sixth of the class, additional work, 
and promote them as it is found best. The slow pu- 
pils, about one sixth of the class, interest us. Though 
dull, they often have good stuff in them. AYe study 
each one. We spare no effort to interest and stim- 



152 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ulate these pupils. We give them the minimum 
amount of work to do. Most of them are led to do 
reasonably good work. When it becomes evident 
^ that one of these can not profitably work with the 
class, he is dropped to a lower one. 

3. Medium- sized Classes are most desirable. From 
ten to thirty pupils constitute a satisfactory working 
class. When a class in our elementary or high schools 
exceeds thirty, it should, if possible, be divided. 
Classes of less than ten pupils may safely be com- 
bined. We find it true educational economy to keep 
our classes within efficient working limits. In some 
subjects much is gained by combined recitations ; in 
other studies we can accomplish most by dividing a 
class into sections. In all cases individual teaching 
characterizes good class work. The teacher must 
study to keep in vital touch with each pupil. 

4. The Class is the Heart of School Life. In it 
and throuo'h it flow the warm currents of educative 
life. Here teacher and pupil are at their best. The 
united effort to master the subject creates enthusiasm 
and develops power. Each pupil does his best. Like 
the skilful general in the battle, the teacher encour- 
ages and manages ; but the pupils, like the soldiers, 
do the work. In the class the pupils learn how to 

. study, how to find out from ^Nature, how to find out 
from books, and how to express. 

5. Classification is vastly hetter than Individual- 
ism. The greatest thing the race has done or can do 
is the creation of schools for all. Even in the stage 
of individualism the school was invaluable, for some- 
how pupils learned to read and write and cipher. 



THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 153 

But classification was an immense improvement. It 
carried over into the elementary schools what had 
proved so helpful in the higher education. The class 
multiplies the teacher by ten or even by twenty. The 
teacher with the class works with power impossible 
with one pupil. The pupils gain most by the class. 
Investigating together utilizes the potent agencies — 
interest, sympathy, generosity, generous emulation. 

Hygienic Conditions of Educative Class Work. 

The successful teacher looks well to the hygienic 
conditions of educative class work. (1) Pupils must 
form good hygienic habits. Perfect health is the basis 
of achievement. (2) Pupils must breathe pure air of 
the proper temperature. Yitiated air and abnormal 
temperature remarkably reduce the efficiency of class 
work. (3) Pupils must work in the light. Cheer- 
ful, well-lighted schoolrooms are astonishingly help- 
ful. (4) Pupils must change positions frequently. 
Now they stand and now they sit ; now they work at 
the board and now they do seat work. Yonng per- 
sons soon grow restless, and movement is a school 
necessity. (5) Pupils mnst be made happy. There 
is interest and delight, and all are glad when the time 
comes for class work. Fear and grades and mere me- 
chanical work are not thought of. (6) Teacher and 
pupils must be kept fresh by the hourly recess ; no 
other hygienic device is of equal value in school 
work. Good hygienic conditions multiply the work- 
ing power of teacher and pupil and render control 
comparatively easy. The stupid teacher drudges on 



154 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

and does not stop to tliink of the hygienic conditions 
of success. 

Happy Class Control. 

Educative control conditions the best teaching. 
Attention through interest is fundamentaL Intelli- 
gent and vigorous teaching is the secret of easy con- 
trol. 'Not a moment is wasted. Each pupil is en- 
listed in the lesson, and is led to do his best. Rules 
are not needed. All look to the teacher as their 
leader. Desire to ask or answer a question is indi- 
cated by raising the hand. No one thinks of com- 
municating except through the teacher. There is no 
excuse for disorder, nor is there time to reprove dis- 
order during the recitation. A disorderly pupil is 
quietly but promptly excused from the class, and the 
work is not interrupted. Later, the unfortunate dis- 
turber is kindly disciplined. Each pupil grows into 
the habit of good conduct and vigorous work. It is 
a great thing to secure the earnest effort of each 
member of the class to master the lesson and also 
help others to master it. Quiet is essential, but 
mere silence is not good order ; earnest work char- 
acterizes good class control. The art of happy class 
control tests to the utmost the skill even of the most 
gifted teacher. Few preachers can hold the attention 
of an audience for half an hour ; it is vastly more 
difficult to hold the interested working attention of a 
class of restless pupils ; to do this the teacher must be 
intensely in earnest and must understand his pupils, 
his subject, and his art. Control is easy and happy 
when pupils are kept interested and busy. 



THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. I55 

Scheme for classifying Schools. 

The problems relating to the class are of profound 
interest. Here, as everywhere, we must build on the 
experience of the race ; but with all the lights of the 
past and all the helps of the present, each one, from 
necessity, must work out these problems anew. The 
teacher is an artist, not merely an artisan. The aim 
in these chapters is to develop principles rather than 
rules, and to suggest better ideals rather than to teach 
specific methods. Our faith in the earnest teacher is 
simply boundless. 

School classification has been satisfactorily worked 
out in our times. With no other phase of our school 
work are we so well pleased. The scheme so ably 
worked out seems worthy of universal acceptatioUc 
The aim is to unify the educational work from the 
kindergarten to the university. 

1. The Rural School. The typical rural school is 
ungraded. There is one teacher, and the pupils are 
of all elementary stages of advancement. The work 
includes that of our primary and intermediate graded 
schools. The scheme of classification wisely harmo- 
nizes the work of ungraded and graded schools. The 
elementary period is eight years — from the sixth to 
the fourteenth year of pupil life. N^o attempt to 
shorten the time is likely to prove satisfactory. The 
pupils in the rural schools are grouped into four 
classes, each class doing two years' work. Class D in- 
cludes the pupils from six to eight ; class C, the pupils 
from eight to ten ; class B, the pupils from ten to 
twelve ; class A, the pupils from twelve to fourteen. 



156 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

In the real school the ages vary, but these are work- 
ing averages. Each class includes two grades. (See 
Eural Schools, Chapter XXI.) 

2. The Graded School. The pupils are arranged 
according to advancement into eight groups called 
grades. In the typical graded school there is a teach- 
er for each grade. The pupils in a grade do a year's 
work, so the grades and the years correspond ; thus 
Grade I includes the pupils doing the first year's 
work, and Grade YIII includes the pupils doing the 
work of the eighth year. Each grade includes two 
classes, the beginners in the grade (class b) and the 
advanced pupils (class a). Here and everywhere a 
class means a group of pupils who work together. 
(See Graded Schools, Chapter XXIII.) 

3. The High School. The course extends through 
four years, and the pupils are grouped into four 
divisions corresponding with the years and designated 
by the letters D, C, B, and A. These groups are 
arranged in classes of twenty pupils, more or less, and 
designated as class D\ class D^, class D^, etc. ; class 
C^, class C^ class C^, etc. ; class B\ class E^ ; class A. 
The scheme is so practical that it tends to become 
general. (See High Schools, Chapter XX Y.) 

4. Educators plan Simplicity^ Uniformity^ Unity. 
Our schools are the schools of the people, and hence 
demand that the scheme of classification be simple 
and the nomenclature easy. We so plan that our un- 
graded schools may be readily transformed into graded 
schools. We so plan that pupils may, without a 
break in their work, pass from an ungraded to graded 
schools, or from one graded school to any other graded 



THE CLASS, AND CLASS CONTROL. 157 

school. We so plan that the pupil, without a break, 
may pass up from class to class from the kindergarten 
to the university. 

Classification of the Pupils. 

This problem is ever with us. Of all organic 
school work, this is the most difficult and the most 
important. Mistakes here mar lives. We find it easy 
to master the scheme for classification, but we never 
find it easy to classify our pupils. Classification is 
strictly professional work. 

1. Criteria. We study each pupil as the physician 
studies each patient. Heredity, temperament, phys- 
ical abilities, mental abilities, moral habits, and attain- 
ments in the leading studies are carefully considered. 
The vital question is, Cmi this pujpil worh most profit- 
ably loith this class f In view of all the conditions 
we decide. Like all artists, we find our work ex- 
tremely perplexing at first ; but as the years go by we 
gain intuitive insight and acquire skill. 

2. Tentative. After all, class w^ork is the ulti- 
mate test. It is important to place the new pupil 
in the right class at first, but it is always the safe 
course to try him before deciding. Our tentative 
classifications must necessarily^ be more or less hasty ; 
but when we observe the pupil at his work, we de- 
liberately determine his place. From day to day we 
promote and demote pupils as we find best, and so 
reach, in some degree, permanent classification. 

3. Promote and Transfer. The teacher's work is 
never done. Classification goes on forever. A true 
class is a group of pupils wlio can profitably worlc 



158 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

together. Whenever we become satisfied that a pnpil 
can work more profitably w^ith a higher class, we pro- 
mote him ; or we transfer him, when we find he can 
do better, to a lower class. We make these changes 
as quietly as Nature works. Before the time comes 
for class promotion we shall have made all desirable 
changes, and the class as a class will become a higher 
class. This is ideal, but it should be made a reality 
by every progressive teacher. 



CHAPTER XYI. 

PUPIL IMPEOVEMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE CLASS 
METHODS AND DEVICES. 

We build on the achievements of the race. We 
study to make our class work exceedingly fruitful. 
We learn valuable lessons in class work from Jesus, 
from Plato, from Pythagoras, from the Rabbi, from 
the Jesuit, from gifted teachers of all ages and lands. 
We enrich our own experience in class work by all 
experience. In all the light, as best we can, we plan 
and do our class work. 

The Recitation. — This expression is a heritage from 
the old schoolmaster. To him, class work was liter- 
ally reciting ; the pupil committed the words of the 
book and recited the lesson. The new education re- 
tains the expression but gives to it a new meaning. 
In general, we use class work and the recitation as 
synonymous expressions ; but specifically, the recita- 



EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 159 

tion includes class work conducted by tlie teacher. 
The teacher directs laboratory work and the studies 
of the several pupils, but this is individual rather 
than class work. We speak of the recitation period, 
the recitation plan, the next recitation, the previous 
recitation, for we find these expressions most con- 
venient. 

Class Work. — Whatever the class does as an organ- 
ism is termed class work. In its elements the class is 
composed of the teacher and the pupils. For work- 
ing purposes the pupils are grouped into sections, 
number one in each group being section leader. Roll 
call is instantaneous as the section leaders report ab- 
sentees. Like a well-organized army the class is al- 
ways ready for action. The teacher is the class leader. 
What do you consider good class work ? What are 
the characteristics of the eflicient recitation ? What 
do you understand by good class methods ? AYhat do 
you mean by helpful class devices ? 

Chakacteristics of Efficient Class Work. 

We study the class work of many successful teach- 
ers, and gain insight into the nature of the well con- 
ducted recitation. Some characteristics of fruitful 
teaching impress us. 

1. Spontaneity. Teacher and pupils study as best 
they can the lesson topic. ^ The teacher plans the reci- 
tation as carefully as the general plans the battle. Still 
the ideal recitation is a marvel of spontaneity. Teacher 
and pupils enter into the investigation with the fresh- 
ness and zest of original explorers and real artists. 
Investigation and creation supplement each other. 



160 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The recitation, like the poem, is an original creation. 
It is this spontaneity that sustains unflagging inter- 
est and inspires teacher and pupils to surpass them- 
selves. Arnold spent hours preparing a Latin exer- 
cise that he had taught annually for thirty years, but 
he taught the lesson as if it was for the first time. 
The real teacher, like the orator, is always fresh and 
inspiring. Spontaneity characterizes good class work 
as drudgery characterizes machine work. Constant 
surprises keep the teacher and the pupils alert and 
happy. 

2. Revealing and Concealing. God reveals a lit- 
tle and leaves man to find out the rest. Jesus taught 
a few truths and wisely left us hungering and thirst- 
ing for more. The great preacher unfolds one or 
two truths, but awakens a burning desire to know all 
truth. The discreet teacher conceals from view the 
boundless continent, that he may lead his pupils to ex- 
plore the small island. It is a great art to open truth 
to the learner little by little. The novice tells all he 
knows, but the wise teacher conceals all but the one 
thing needful. Agassiz so taught one thing as to in- 
spire his pupils to find out many things. Revealing 
is well, but concealing is better. "We learn a great 
lesson from the microscope ; the teacher conceals that 
he may the better reveal. Concealing the boundless 
fields of knowledge and revealing truth little by little 
characterizes good class work. " The art of teaching 
a little," said Huxley, " depends on knowing a great 
deal, and that thoroughly." 

3. Review and Recapitulation. Isolated ideas are 
worthless, but related truths are golden. At each step 



EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 161 

the learner is led to apperceive as well as perceive. 
The present lesson builds on previous lessons. Be- 
fore beginning the nev7 lesson the pupils recall in 
brief the results heretofore reached, and the new les- 
son is worked out in view of past lessons. Then, at 
the close of the recitation, the points made in the les- 
son are recapitulated, that they may be firmly grasped 
and readily reproduced. Like the oration, the recita- 
tion has its exordium and its peroration. Like the 
essay, the recitation has its introduction and its sum- 
mary. The review and the recapitulation characterize 
good class work. 

4. Lesson Plan. As the general plans the battle, 
so the true teacher plans the recitation. The aim 
is mastery through concentrated and well-directed 
effort. All educative work is systematic work. The 
main points are isolated, mastered in detail, recom- 
bined. By examples and illustrations and compari- 
sons and applications the pupils are led to fully grasp 
the points. Other studies are made contributory, but 
nothing, even for a moment, is permitted to divert 
attention from the lesson. The questions and stories 
and discussions and allusions, from start to finish, are 
made to contribute to the mastery of the lesson. As 
defeat awaits the commander who fights without a 
battle plan, so failure awaits the teacher who meets 
his class without a lesson plan. Only one teacher in 
twenty wisely plans the lessons, and only one teacher 
in twenty does masterly class work. As the result of 
this criminal neglect, the waste of pupil energy is ap- 
palling. The skilful lesson plan characterizes good 

class work. 
13 



162 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

5. The Drill. " Eepeat without ceasing " was 
Jacotot's golden rule. The dynamic factors of mas- 
tery are attention, interest, doing. The new is con- 
stantly assimilated with the old. A little truth gained 
is applied in many ways. Doing supplements know- 
ing and telling. The learner repeats and repeats un- 
til he feels the spirit of mastery; but repetition is 
never mechanical memory ; the repetition is ever in 
new forms. Problem after problem is solved and ex- 
plained. Example after example is given. The drill 
is incalculably helpful. It gives the pupil courage 
and strength and skill to advance. As the teacher 
gains teaching insight he drills his pupils more and 
more. This is what is meant by thorough work. 
The efficient drill characterizes good class work. 

6. The Pre-suTvey. The lesson assigned is the 
measure of teaching skill. In nothing is the wise 
teacher more painstaking than in assigning lessons. 
The lesson to be assigned has been carefully consid- 
ered. How much can the pupil do well ? The pre- 
survey prepares pupils for successful study. Two or 
three minutes are spent in a pre-examination of the 
lesson topic. An interest in the new lesson is awak- 
ened and helpful suggestions are given. In all classes 
below the college the pre-survey is necessary to the 
best class work. The helpful pre-survey characterizes 
good class work. 

Educative Class Methods. 

These are eifective ways of doing class work. The 
aim is culture through mastery. The recitation plan 
must first of all be grounded in principles. Teaching 



EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 163 

as an art is rooted in education as science. Educa- 
tional laws guide the educator. Skilful adaptation 
is cardinal. A sound plan of class work that thor- 
oughly enlists the pupils and fully utilizes teacher and 
pupil effort may be counted a good class method. 

Class methods are systematic plans of class work. 
The prepared teacher works out well-considered plans. 
We speak of special class methods, but we always think 
of class methods as the ways of doing class work. The 
teacher blends into harmony good methods and help- 
ful devices. 

1. Unity Method. Unity through law is funda- 
mental. Amid endless diversity there is marvelous 
agreement in the essentials. The processes of teach- 
ing and learning are ever the same. Perceiving and 
apperceiving, discriminating and assimilating, analyz- 
ing and synthetizing, induction and deduction, enter 
into the warp and woof of learning and teaching. 
Development of power through the acquisition of 
knowledge is the common purpose. Great princi- 
ples give unity to class work. Leading pupils to 
apperceive their acquisitions and thereby unify them 
is the very essence of good class work. 

2. Individual Method. The teacher studies to 
understand each pupil. He does his best to bring 
out the individuality of each member of the class. 
Everything is made to contribute to the unfolding 
of the individual pupil. In class work each genuine 
teacher works in his own ways. In all the world we 
do not find two true teachers pursuing the same class 
methods. A true recitation is a new creation. Pupil 
betterment is the test. Each teacher constantly asks 



164 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

himself, What are the best ways to elicit the best efforts 
of each pupil ? Class methods which thoroughly en- 
list each pupil in the class work are highly educative. 

3. Investigation Class Metliod. The teacher sys- 
tematically leads pupils to find out. The class, led by 
the teacher, investigate, search for truth. All re- 
search, all experimenting, all explaining, all laboratory 
work, all efforts to find out and understand, are in- 
cluded in the investigation class method. Good class 
methods are good ways of investigating. All educa- 
tional progress, all teaching plans, all helpful class de- 
vices, and all teaching facilities, are included in this 
all-comprehending investigation method. Teaching 
plans are ways of investigating. These plans may be 
grouped as the teaching-question plan, the topical 
plan, the discussion plan, the conversational lecture 
plan, and the lecture plan. The ideal recitation skil- 
fully combines these ways of investigation. 

4. The Teaching-question Method. By skilful 
questioning the teacher leads the pupil to find out for 
himself. Socrates so questioned as to incite and lead 
the investigator to discover truth. The Socratic ques- 
tion is the teaching question, and is sometimes called 
the Socratic method or the teaching-question method. 
The following incident, adapted to our environments, 
is a good example : 

Meno. " Socrates, we come to you feelings strong and wise ; we 
leave you feeling helpless and ignorant. Why is this I " 

Socrates. " I will show you." Calling a young Greek, and mak- 
ing a line in the sand, he proceeded : " Boy, how long is this line ■? " 

Boy. " It is a foot long, sir." 

Socrates. " How long is this line?" 

JBoy. " It is two feet long, sir." 



EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 165 

Socrates. " How much larger would be the square constructed 
on the second line than on the first line f " 

Boy. " It would be twice as large, sir." 

Under the direction of the boy, Socrates constructs the two 
squares. 

Socrates. *' How much larger than the first did you say the 
second square would be?" 

Boy. " I said it would be twice as large." 

Socrates. " How much larger is it ? " 

Boy. " It is four times as large." 

Socrates. " Thank you, my boy ; you may go. — Meno, that boy 
came to me full of confidence, thinking himself wise. I told him 
nothing. By a few simple questions I led him to see his error 
and discover the truth. Though really wiser, he goes away feel- 
ing humbled." 

The teacliing question elicits attention, awakens 
interest, and guides effort. It gives the learner the 
pleasure of discovering the truth. The teacher and 
pupil investigate together, but the pupil finds out for 
himself. The teaching question, though older than 
Socrates, is a striking characteristic of the new educa- 
tion. The true teacher so questions as to lead the 
pupil to find out what he does not know, but the 
schoolkeeper so questions as to lead the pupil to re- 
peat what he already knows. The teaching question 
is one of the best features of helpful class work, 
while the old question-and-answer method is one of 
the worst. 

5. The Conversation Method. Genuine teaching 
is largely conversational. This form of class work 
unifies teacher and pupil effort to find out. The 
best oral teaching is conversational. The story, the 
conduct lesson, and the oral science lesson are mostly 
conversational. Pupils are led to contribute all they 



166 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

know, and to ask about the new lesson. At every 
step the pupils work with the teacher. The con- 
versation includes the teaching question, but it also 
imparts information to prepared pupils. Teacher 
and pupils investigate, examine, talk over the matter, 
ask, and answer. The conversation must never de- 
generate into a monologue. The great art is to get 
the pupils to enter heartily into the conversational in- 
vestigation. 

6. The Topic Method. In this method the class 
investigate systematically. The lesson topic includes 
several subtopics which are examined one by one. 
The topic method includes the teaching question, the 
conversation, and the discussion methods. One or 
two pupils tell what they know about a subtopic, 
after which the class examine the topic. When used 
judiciously the topic method may be made the basis 
of systematic class work, but its exclusive use is fatal 
to educative work. Mere topic work excludes in- 
vestigation, and admirably suits the schoolkeeper, for 
it excludes teaching. The true topic method involves 
all the other methods of investigating. 

7. The Discussion Method. This is the method 
to develop power. The world needs oaks rather than 
willows. Discussion develops a sturdy manhood. The 
class investigate together. In brief speeches the 
pupils present and defend their positions. ITothing 
arouses greater interest or calls forth more vigorous 
effort than well-directed discussion. The discussion 
tends to develop vigorous thought and independent 
expression. As iron sharpens iron, so discussion sharp- 
ens mind. The Jesuits used this method in develop- 



* EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 107 

iiig an army of mighty men. Educationally, discus- 
sion stands very high. In these mental conflicts the 
utmost power of the pupil is put forth. He acquires 
cogency of thought and vigour of expression. He 
learns to respect the positions of otliers, and at the 
same time to manfully maintain his own. There is 
no better way to cultivate independence, self-asser- 
tion, liberality, and the habit of treating an opponent 
courteously and fairly. The discussion, from the pri- 
mary to the university, may be made helpful ; it does 
most to abolish stupidity and indifference in class 
work. The teacher so manages the discussion as to 
develop the spirit of investigation rather than the 
spirit of victory. A weak teacher does well to pro- 
hibit discussion. The strong teacher uses the discus- 
sion method judiciously, and finds it a tremendous 
educative force. 

8. The Lecture Method. The learners think with 
the lecturer. The living teacher leads the research, 
giving information and inspiration. The lecture 
method instructs. Through the centuries the lecture 
has been a marvellous educative means. We think of 
Aristotle and Kant and Jesus as teaching by lectures. 
These masters combined the conversation and lecture 
methods. Surely the lecture has its place in class 
work. Where ? IS^ot in the elementary ; not usually 
in the high school ; not usually in the freshman and 
junior college classes. Elementary pupils are not 
prepared to profit by lectures. The true elementary 
oral work is the conversation, and not the lecture. 
High-school pupils are trained to think with the lec- 
turer, and the occasional lecture proves highly bene- 



168 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ficial ; but the lecture is not the form of higli- 
school educative class work. As a rule, the freshman 
and sophomore college students are hurt and not 
helped by the too frequent lecture. The occasional 
lecture or course of lectures in some subjects do great 
good, but thorough teaching during these precious 
years is imperative. The place for the lecture in class 
work is in the junior and senior college classes, in the 
graduate work, and in the professional schools. The 
advanced students think with the lecturer as he leads 
them into fields of research and into the realms of 
philosophical investigation. But even in the advanced 
work the lecture must be supplemented by good teach- 
ing. 

Helpful Class Devices. 

These are expedients for improving class work. 
The careless teacher sbmetimes speaks of these helps 
as methods. We think of fundamental and guiding 
truths as educational principles ; of systematic plans 
of school work as methods ; and of temporary expe- 
dients as devices. The ingenious teacher pursues sys- 
matic methods, but uses countless devices. We think 
of the topic plan of class work as a class method, but 
we think of blackboard work as a device. We rejoice 
in all helpful school devices, but we deprecate mere 
novelty, and condemn pretentious but uneducative de- 
vices. A few approved devices will serve as sugges- 
tions. 

1. The Class. This is a device to economize time 
and energy, to utilize the group forces, and to foster 
the habit of working with others. But the class does 
not sink the individual in the group. Each pupil 



EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 169 

must be as well cared for as thougli the instruction 
was to him alone. This is often overlooked. The 
superficial teacher addresses the class as a whole ; if 
there is a fair amount of attention he is satisfied. 
This is a fatal mistake. The class must not be dealt 
with as a compound, but as an organism made up of 
individuals. It must be dealt with as a skilful florist 
deals with his plants, where each plant has the culture 
it needs, to the manifest advantage of the whole. 

2. W?'itten Work supplements oral work. In 
school and college, in our times, about one third of 
the class work is written work. When at the board, 
it is board work ; when at the seat, it is tablet work. 
The writing tablet has supplanted the slate. Study- 
ing or reciting, the pupil finds constant use for the 
tablet. The gain by this device is immense. All 
members of the class work. But there is danger here. 
Keal teaching must always be mainly oral, and must 
be supplemented by written work. Written work is 
a leading class device, but must not be carried to ex- 
tremes. 

3. Laboratory Work. Learners are led to gain 
knowledge first hand. Laboratory work has become a 
marvellous educative device, entering as it does in some 
form into nearly all school work. It is used to include 
all work in which the pupils individually seek truth 
through observation, measurement, and experiment. 
In class laboratory work the teacher directs the investi- 
gation, and all concentrate on the study of one thing. 
Each pupil will, when possible, do individual work. 
One experiment made by the pupil helps more than a 
score made by the teacher. Laboratory work is a 



170 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

most helpful class device, and must be used to supple- 
ment all forms of efficient teaching. 

4. Outline Wo7'k. This device systematizes class 
work. After a subject has been mastered in detail, it 
is reviewed in outline. The diagram is the last syn- 
thesis. The outline aids memory and enables the 
learner to grasp the subject as a whole. It leads to 
the mastery of essentials and the omission of burden- 
some details. But the outline is merely a device. 
Pupils starve when fed on skeletons. We begin with 
the concrete, and work up to classes, definitions, rules, 
principles, diagrams. We begin with particulars and 
work up to outlines. Modern text-books rightly place 
the outline at the close of the subject. To begin with 
diagrams, to teach from diagrams, and to depend upon 
diao:rams are fundamental educational errors. The 
outline wisely used is an excellent class device. The 
teacher leads the pupil up step by step and then the 
steps are outlined. The pupils make the outlines. 

5. Reporting Worh. This device leads to re- 
search. In every class we have bright pupils who are 
able to do extra work; we manage to have these 
pupils prepare interesting reports bearing on the 
work of the class. It is a valuable device to appoint 
a pupil to examine and report on a topic connected 
with the lesson. These reports are brief, but interest- 
ing. They are in the line of original research, and 
help the pupil and the class. 

6. Teaching Worh. This device multiplies indi- 
vidual effort. The topic has been thoroughly investi- 
gated, but the pupils need the drill. The class is 
divided into groups of two or more each, and the 



EDUCATIVE CLASS METHODS AND DEVICES. 171 

pupils in a group in turn act as teacher of the group. 
For large classes this is a valuable artifice, as it greatly 
multiplies individual work. In normal work it is 
found to be an admirable device for practice teaching 
in advanced work. The wide-awake teacher will use 
teaching work sparingly, but will never rely upon it. 
Nothing can take the place of individual teaching. 
Teaching work breaks up monotony and is admirable 
for drill. Teaching is remarkably educative ; all 
pupils take delight in teaching. Teaching work often 
does more to interest pupils than any other device. 
However, we must keep in mind that this is merely a 
temporary expedient to be used occasionally. 

7. Concert Work. This device enlivens the reci- 
tation. Class work sometimes drags. Concert work, 
used occasionally, arouses the pupils. The members 
of a section or of the entire class answer together. 
To overcome timidity, to quicken the interest, or to 
fix a fact, this device may be used sparingly. We use 
it most with young pupils ; as the pupils advance 
we use it less and less. In some subjects concert 
work affords a valual)le drill. It may be advanta- 
geously used to a limited extent in all classes, but espe- 
cially in oral work. The exclusive concert method is a 
sure cure for study and for thorough teaching. Con- 
cert teaching is showy but shallow, and is favoured by 
" fuss-and- feather " teachers. The honest teacher will 
use the concert method sparingly and judiciously. 

8. Original Class Devices. Numerous other de- 
vices are of great value, but there is danger of perplex- 
ing the young teacher. The orator, while speaking, 
never thinks of the principles of elocution or of the 



172 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

intonations of his voice. The artist seems inspired, 
but hard work is the source of the inspiration. While 
teaching, the educational artist seldom thinks of prin- 
ciples or methods or devices. Having mastered these 
in detail, he intuitively pursues the method and uses 
the device best suited to his purpose at the time. He 
is the master of some methods and many devices, but 
the slave of none. From time to time he uses such 
as he deems most helpful. He often thinks of the 
story of David and his sling, and relies most on his 
common sense. He finds that one of his own devices 
to meet conditions is of more value than many second- 
hand devices. 



CHAPTER XYII. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH HELPFUL SCHOOL AND 
CLASS TACTICS. 

I By school tactics is meant a system of signals and 
movements adapted to school work. The object is to 
promote order and orderly habits and facilitate work. 
Suitable school and class tactics save time, improve 
the symmetry and spirit of the school, and train to 
habits of prompt and exact obedience. The wise 
teacher uses with judgment sensible school tactics. 

Principles determine Signals and Movements. — The 
fitness should be obvious to the pupils. Everything 
to help and nothing to hurt is the cardinal princi- 
ple. All required movements should be necessary. 
Changes are made with the least expeiiditure of time 



HELPFUL SCHOOL AND CLASS TACTICS. 173 

and energy consistent with fitness. Signals should be 
few. No time or energy should be wasted on the 
purely mechanical. Numerous signals confuse and 
squander the energies of teacher and pupils. Signals 
should be specific. Words of command are usually 
best in class work. Gentle bell taps are the best sig- 
nals for movements. Our school tactics should be 
iiniform. Much will be gained in school, as in miU- 
tary tactics, by general uniformity. Variety in teach- 
ing but uniformity in tactics is a school desideratum. 
"Words of command should be given in a low, firm 
tone. Commands given in a thin, faltering tone and 
with the rising inflection cause the pupils to smile 
and hesitate. Good elocution commands respect and 
obedience. Movements must be executed quickly, 
quietly, and with precision. Noisy, dilatory, slov- 
enly movements are distressing, and result in bad 
habits. The greatest freedom consistent with good 
order should be permitted during movements. Pu- 
pils are trained to behave properly at all times, but 
liberty is the very hfe of the school. The martinet 
who requires pupils to march with folded arms, closed 
lips, and solemn looks should be a trainer of monkeys. 
The Electric Programme Clock is a Serviceable 
Help. — It relieves the teacher of the time strain and 
secures absolute regularity in school work. The clock 
taps a bell in each room three minutes before the 
close of the recitation period and at the close. Time 
is thus given for closing the lesson and for the pre- 
survey of the next lesson. The programme clock 
thus aids in school management. One clock regulates 
the whole school, however large, ringing any num- 



174 SCHOOL MANAGExMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ber of programmes. In many of our best schools 
the electric programme clock calls and dismisses all 
classes, and calls and dismisses school. ^^ Books!'''' 
the cry of the old schoolmaster, is no longer heard in 
the land. 

We study Economy in calling and dismissing School. 
— All school buildings should be constructed in view 
of quick entrance and exit, so that the school can be 
easily called or dismissed within two minutes. In 
large schools it seems necessary to have the pupils 
form in line, but in small schools, and in all schools 
above the primary, pupils can soon be trained to as- 
semble orderly without this device. The plans for 
calling and dismissing school vary with the circum 
stances. The one essential is that there shall be good 
order. The clock taps the bell ; two minutes are 
given for assembling. At the end of this time all 
are required to be in places and the clock signals 
work ; pupils not in places are tardy. This plan 
works well in all schools from the primary school to 
the university. 

We study Economy in calling and dismissing Glasses. 
— The clock taps bells ; instantly the pupils rise, turn, 
and pass to recitation places. In the absence of the sig- 
nal clock the call bell is used. The teacher so plans that 
the pupils move without confusion. Much skill in 
planning the movements is necessary in large schools. 
The electric bells tap three minutes before the close 
of the recitation and at its close. At the closing signal 
the pupils instantly rise, turn, and move to seats in 
assembly room or to playgrounds. Soon pupils may 
be trained to move with precision and grace. This is 



HELPFUL SCHOOL AND CLASS TACTICS. I75 

the perfection of school tactics. The signal clock for 
rnral schools is inexpensive bnt invaluable. It rings 
a bell on the playgrounds and taps a bell in the school- 
room. 

We study Fitness in Recitation Tactics. — A true 
class is a group of pupils who can work together. 
The best class tactics waste no time or energy. 
Teacher and pupils get to understand each other and 
learn to work together. The teacher leads in the 
work, and directs by a few easy signals the move- 
ments of the class. In school tactics signals include 
words of command as well as mechanical devices. 
The old schoolmaster called the pupils consecutively. 
He began at the head of the class and proceeded to 
the foot. ^^Next!^^ was his one signal. The old- 
time professor arranged the names alphabetically and 
called on the pupils as the names occurred on the 
roll. We remember the dear old man and the tricks 
we used to play on him. The modern teacher treats 
the class as a unit ; each pupil does all the work. 
When a problem is given or a question asked, each 
one thinks and then raises the hand. Some one is 
called and hands are dropped, but any pupil may be 
called on at any moment. All are wide awake. Pu- 
pils raise hands to answer, to criticise, to ask. But 
no one can specify ; each teacher pursues his own 
course. You manage your class in your way. 

We study Economy in Blackboard Tactics. — When 
called to the board pupils await signals. At the sig- 
nal ^^ Board I^'' each pupil turns to the left. At the 
signal " Attention /^^ each pupil faces to the right. At 
the signal ^' Erase ! " the pupils turn to the board and 



176 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

erase by moving erasers down. At the signal " Write / " 
each pupil takes a crayon and proceeds as directed. 
These are the sensible signals used in nearly all our 
schools. Movements are orderly and graceful, and 
much time is saved. As the crayon troughs are cov- 
ered with wire gauze, and as the pupils are trained to 
move the erasers downward, no one is annoyed by 
crayon dust. 

We study Fitness in Concert Tactics. — Pupils re- 
spond when called on ; otherwise no one speaks. 
Nearly all class work is individual, but occasional 
concert responses help. At the signal " Class ! " all 
respond in concert. At the signal " Boys ! " only boys 
respond, and at the signal " Girls! " only girls respond. 
Teaching work, to a limited extent, is remarkably 
helpful. The class is divided into groups of two 
or more pupils each ; at the signal " Ones ! " the ones 
act as teachers and the others in the group as pupils ; 
at the signal " Twos ! " the twos act as teachers and the 
others as pupils. The signal " Attention I " closes the 
exercise. 

Each Teacher studies Well a System of School 
Tactics. — The informal teacher manages to have con- 
siderable freedom, but it is not the freedom of law. 
The informal school always impresses us as a dis- 
orderly school. A few hours of faithful study and a 
few weeks of careful practice will enable even inex- 
perienced teachers to master helpful school tactics. 
Soon you can work easily and vigorously. The tone 
and appearance of your school will improve, and your 
efficiency as a teacher will be largely augmented. 



EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 177 



CHAPTER XYIII. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THEOUGH EDUCATIVE OKAL AND 

BOOK WORK. 

We think of the Old Education as Bookwork.— So 

many pages were assigned for a lesson and so many 
pages were recited. The pupils studied the book and 
the teacher heard them recite the book. " Take the 
next lesson," was the stereotyped form of assigning 
work. The college professor interpreted the book 
or substituted the lecture for the book. Mechanical 
bookwork very largely characterized the old educa- 
tion. Learning and not development was made pri- 
mary. 

We think of the New Education as combining Oral 
and Book Work.— Intelligent bookwork is preceded 
and accompanied by oral work. The pupil works face 
to face with things, and gains knowledge first hand. 
From the kindergarten to the university the labora- 
tory method predominates. Things are studied and 
books are used as helps. Pupils are educated to inves- 
tigate. Experiment and research are made the basis. 
Judicious oral teaching combined with rational book- 
work characterizes the new education. Development 
and not learning is primary. 

Oral and Book Work vary with the Stages of Growth. 
—Books are our best helps. As pupil experience en- 
larges books are used more and more. The diagram 
indicates in some degree the relative amount of oral 
work as compared with bookwork in our best schools. 

13 



178 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Possibly the proportion of college bookwork is ex- 
aggerated in view of the marvellous increase of the 
laboratory work, but research and the lectures are 
here counted as bookwork. At first 
the pupils depend on the teacher for 
inforination, but as they advance 
they come to depend less and less 
on the teacher and more and more 
on books. 

At first the child learns about 
things by direct inspection ; it gains 
ideas directly from material objects 
and from its own conscious activi- 
ties. As the months multiply the 
child more and more assimilates im- 
mediate and remembered experi- 
ences in forming its notions of 
things. Little by little the pupil 
learns to appropriate the experi- 
ences of others. Teacher experience 
supplements child experience ; the 
teacher stimulates and guides the 
efforts of the child, but its ideas are gained directly 
through its own experience. This is oral work. "When 
prepared for it the pupil is led to find out from books. 
Printed words now represent to the pupil ideas of 
things in new combinations. The learner begins to 
understand symbols and so gains knowledge from 
books. This is bookwork. 

Kindergarten Work is Oral; Primary "Work is 
Largely Oral. — During the first and second primary 
years, as during the kindergarten years, nearly all 




EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 179 

eacliing is oral work. During tlie third and fourth 
years nearly three fourths of the work is still oral. 
During the intermediate years books become more 
and more helpful, but oral work still predominates. 
In the high school oral and book work, at first, are 
iibout equal. In the college, bookwork predominates 
as research and the lectures are counted as bookwork. 
As the learner advances he enters into the heritage of 
human learning as recorded in books, but at every 
step he builds on his own experiences. 

Oeal Work in Elementary Schools. 

As teachers become skilful it is surprising to ob- 
serve the preponderance of oral work in our elemen- 
tary schools. 

1. The Conduct Lessons are Oral. Even in the 
history of our own country, conduct bearings must be 
very largely oral work. The study lessons are oral, but 
the pupils are trained to find out from books as well 
as from things. The lessons in general history and 
civics are oral lessons. Only in American history do 
we have strictly bookwork. 

2. Language- Literature Lessoiis are partly Oral. 
Reading wisely combines oral and book work, and so 
does literature after the second year. The language 
lessons and composition are very largely oral work. 
Things, ideas, symbols — this is the order. The gram- 
mar lessons during the seventh and eighth ^^ears may 
be counted as book lessons. 

3. The Mathematics Lessons hecome more and 
more Bookwork. During the first and second years 
all the lessons are oral. Concrete geometry is strict- 



180 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOIj METHODS. 

]j oral throughout the elementary course. After the 
second year arithmetic combines oral and book work. 
We class the so-called mental arithmetic as oral. The 
algebra in the seventh and eighth grades may be con- 
sidered bookwork. 

4. The Elementary Science Worh is nearly all 
Oral Worh. The geography lessons, after the sec- 
ond year, wisely unite oral and book work, but dur- 
ing the first and second years the work is strictly oral. 
The biology lessons are strictly oral, but are supple- 
mented by the library. The lessons in physics are 
also oral lessons. Except in geography no text-book 
is used in the science studies. 

5. During the Primary Years all the Art Instruc- 
tion is Oral. During the intermediate years oral and 
book work are combined in drawing and vocal music. 
The instruction in physical culture and manual train- 
ing is counted as oral. 

Okal Teaching. 

Good t)ook teaching is a great art, but good oral 
teaching is a greater. Jesus taught orally. Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, and Pestalozzi taught orally. "What 
is meant hj oral teaching ? Study the parable of the 
sower ; by means of the most familiar incidents Jesus 
teaches the people the greatest truths. Oral teaching 
in its best form exercises, it is estimated, brain areas 
threefold greater than the mechanical book teaching 
of the old schoolmasters. 

1. The Teacher leads the Learner to observe^ to 
investigate^ to tell. Each pupil is given a leaf to 
study, to draw, to describe. The teacher leads the 



EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 181 

learner to experience and discover and do and tell. 
Observation lessons are fundamental. Dr. Hall says : 
" The mechanical learning of the regulation branches 
was for a long time the chief work of the school, and 
it affected a slight brain area. When the objective 
work came in its best form the area awakened, strength- 
ened, and developed — was increased about threefold." 

2. The Teacher educates through the Story. Pu- 
pils are led to discover relations and duties to others. 
I place story teaching side by side with object teach- 
in o-. Human nature interests children equally with 
nature studies. The parable, the anecdote, the fairy 
tale, the conduct story, the history story, the bio- 
graphical story, the tale of travel and exploration, 
are some of the forms of story teaching. As a rule, 
teacher and pnpils should tell the stories rather than 
read them. The fitting story is a great educative 

means. 

3. TJie Teacher ly ajyt Illustrations leads Pupils 
to see clearly. Familiar examples shed a flood of light 
on the dark places. The abstract is ilium med by the 
concrete. As far as possible real cases should be used. 
Jesus illustrated his lessons by giving cases of real men 
and women. Experience with realities is made the 
basis, and illustrations are drawn from environments. 
Eeal things are used in study and class work whenever 
possible. 

4. The Teacher ly Illustrative Apparatus helps 
Pu2?ils to gain Insight. The many illustrative de- 
vices now available are invaluable. Pupils are trained 
to make and use illustrative apparatus ; manual train- 
ing is remarkably helpful. Maps, charts, diagrams, 



182 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

cuts, pictures representing realities, greatly assist, and 
all schoolrooms should be rich in these helps. 

5. The Teacher hy 'means of Drawing educates. 
Agassiz as he taught represented on the board the 
various stages of growth from the e^g to the full- 
grown bird. JS^othing is more helpful to teacher and 
pupil than skilful drawing. Even crude representa- 
tions illustrate. Ability to draw often doubles the 
efficiency of the teacher. 

6. The Teacher impresses l>y Examjples. — Even 
Kant thus makes clear some things in his philoso- 
pliy. Jesus constantly gives examples. At every 
step the skilful teacher gives illustrative examples, 
and also leads the pupils to give original examples 
from their own experience. 

Book Teaching. 

We have a profound respect for good book teach- 
ing. The old schoolmaster taught thoroughly Latin 
and Greek and mathematics, and thus educated for 
centuries the world's leaders. The best thino:s are 
in books. Oral teaching leads to individual experi- 
ence ; book teaching re-enforces intuitive knowledge 
by all learning. Oral teaching leads the learner to lay 
a foundation in personal experience ; book teaching en- 
riches personal experience by the experience of the race. 

1. The True Teacher is known, hy the Lessons as- 
signed for Study. A definite subject with a definite 
book lesson is assigned for study. Efficient teachers 
assign short book lessons such as pupils can and 
will prepare. Only stupid teachers assign unreason- 
able lessons. 



EDUCATIVE ORAL AND BOOK WORK. 183 

The pre-survey is liiglilj important for young pu- 
pils. In assigning the lesson the teacher leads the 
pupils to grasp the relation of the new topic to the 
previous work. He in some way creates interest in 
the new lesson and gives helpful hints about its study. 
In all elementary classes the pre-survey is exceedingly 
helpful. Even our successful high-school teachers sel- 
dom fail to utilize this device. 

2. The Study of Booh Lessons is an Art. The 
pupil is trained to find out from books. The pre- 
survey connects the new lesson with the pupil's world 
and so creates interest. The pre-survey shows the pu- 
pil how to study the lesson, and so no time is wasted. 
Occasionally the teacher and the pupils study a les- 
son together. The work is so managed that pupils ac- 
quire the habit of diligent and efiicient study, and be- 
come expert in gaining information from the printed 
page. 

3. The Teaching of Booh Lessons taxes the Teacher 
to the Utmost. The subject is tides. What does the 
book say 1 What do you say ? The pupil gives in 
his own words information gained from the book. 
Now the real teaching begins. What do you think ? 
The pupil is led to present his own notions. Helpful 
devices are used. Oral information and the library 
supplement the text-book. The pupil's outlook en- 
larges, his information grows broader and broader, 
and his grasp of things becomes greater and greater. 

4. The Right Use of Boohs is a School Art. JSTo 
one now favours the slavish use of text-books. Mere 
memory work is not educative. Repeating is well 
enough for the phonograph. Good book teaching 



184: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

trains pupils to read and reflect, to examine critically, 
to fully grasp the meaning of the author, to thor- 
oughly assimilate the thought. The old-time pro- 
fessors did this in teaching Latin and Greek. We 
must do this in teaching English and history and 
science. However excellent our oral teaching, we 
leave our pupils poor indeed if we fail to lead them 
to gain the art of mastering the printed page. (Read 
Chapter YIII.) 



CHAPTEE XIX. 

GOOD TEACHING IN LIEU OF EXTRANEOrS INCENTIVES. 

The working plan here outlined accords with sound 
educational principles and the best in school life. It 
accords with common sense and the advanced educa- 
tional thought of the world. It strikes at the root of 
a group of hurtful devices and vicious practices. 
"Well-meaning teachers have come to use without con- 
sideration the per-cent system with its train of evils ; 
it has become the fashion. Many teachers do not 
now see how they could manage without per-cent 
marking, nor did the old schoolmaster see how he 
could get on without the rod. But with good teach- 
ing we find that schools get on vastly better without 
than with rods, test examinations, and per-cent mark- 
ings. Let us calmly re-examine some of the extrane- 
ous incentives now in fashion and seek for better 
things. 



GOOD TEACHING. 185 

Written Recitations in Lieu of Test 
Examinations. 

Yital teacliing is the essential tiling. It creates 
and sustains interest, and interest is central in all 
school work. The interested pupil feels a burning 
desire to find out ; he truly hungers and thirsts for 
knowledge. The dreaded test examination, cruel 
marking, perverting prizes, and other extraneous in- 
centives, are not even thought of by pupil or teacher. 
The real teacher, it is true, even when burdened with 
these incumbrances, succeeds, but does so by counter- 
acting in some degree their hurtful tendencies. In 
the new education, teacher and pupils are freed from 
hurtful devices, and the written recitation takes the 
place of the dreaded test examination. Experience 
has demonstrated that the gain by this substitution is 
simply incalculable. The periodic examination in our 
schools as the test of scholarship and as the standard 
for promotion may be wisely consigned to the limbo 
of hurtful school devices : the written recitation is a 



) 



beneficent substitute. Some reasons for the change 
are given in outline ; the elaboration is left to teachers. 
1. The Written Recitation is Educative. It trains 
the pupils to do their best under pressure. During 
the written recitation each pupil strives to produce a 
brief but creditable paper. The art of clear thinking 
and concise expression is cultivated. The written 
recitation has all the merits of the test examination 
without its hurtful characteristics and its noneduca- 
tive effects. The written recitation is equally adapted 
to primary and university classes. 



186 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. The Written Recitation occurs when needed. 
It comes whenever the teacher deems it helpful. No 
pupil thinks of it or makes special preparation for it ; 
it is simply a recitation. The pupils use their writing 
tablets, and so are always ready for written work. 
Periodicity is one of the most hurtful features of the 
test examination, inevitably leading to hurtful cram- 
ming, spasmodic study, and sly cheating. Stated ex- 
aminations occasion dread, produce injurious excite- 
ment, and seriously interfere with the regular work. 
The written recitation is a panacea for these real 
evils. 

3. The Written Recitation is in Line %mth the 
Daily Work. It helps and does not hurt. There is 
no break in the work, and hence no loss of time or in- 
terest. The topics for the written recitation include 
the new lesson as well as the previous lessons. Like 
all good class work, the written recitation is appercep- 
tive ; the teacher adapts the subject to the pupils, and 
each pnpil writes in view of his previous acquisitions 
and assimilates into unity the old and the new. On 
the other hand, the dreaded test examination seriously 
interrupts the regular class work, occasioning the edu- 
cational loss of one or more days every month. Pu- 
pils study in view of the examination and waste their 
energies thinking about it. The hasty cramming is 
not helpful study. The incentive is not w^holesome. 
Then, grading these test papers wastes the precious 
time and squanders the limited energies of the teacher. 
In a word, tlie usual test examination injures teacher 
and pupils and seriously interrupts the regular school 
work. The written recitation remedies these evils. 



GOOD TEACHING. I37 

4. The Written Recitation covers Fainiliar 
Ground. The daily review, a feature of all good 
teacliing, keeps the whole subject fresh. The pupils 
write well because they know thoroughly. The topics 
and questions are definite and clear and embrace the 
most helpful points. Conundrums, mere tests of 
memory, unimportant details, and smart questions are 
excluded. The aim is to foster thoughtful and help- 
ful habits of study and expression. The test exami- 
nation deals largely with unfamiliar topics, and hence 
the pupils do not w^rite well. Too often it is a mere 
test of memory. From the fact that it is made a 
test of scholarship it seems impossible to make it 
educative. 

5. Written Recitations count as oilier Recitations, 
In all class work the appreciative teacher approves 
good work. The " Well done " and " Try again " 
come spontaneously. The same is true of the written 
recitation. At his leisure the teacher reads the papers. 
The creditable papers are marked S (satisfactory), but 
some papers are marked U (unsatisfactory). The 
papers thus marked are returned to the pupils. The 
written recitation is thought of and valued as the 
ordinary recitation. The S and the U are taken as the 
" Well done " and the " Try again " in the daily work. 
Skillful teachers train their pupils to criticise written 
work. The dreaded test examination is the educa- 
tional contrast. The pupils think of little else than 
the coming examination, for it determines their fate. 
On it depends class standing, promotion, graduation, 
prizes, honours. Modify it as we may, the pupils will 
still take this view of the test examination. As edu- 



1S8 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

cators, we see no way to avoid expunging from our 
school vocabulary the very expression. 

6. Good Teachmg sicpplements Oral with Written 
Work. In tlie liigli school, the college, and the pro- 
fessional school written work supplements the lecture. 
Durino' the first ten or fifteen minutes of the recita- 
tion period the students write on topics discussed in the 
lectures, in the text-books, and in the reference-books. 
The teacher finds this infinitely better than the ever- 
lasting lecture and the dreadful note-taking to be fol- 
lowed by the test examination. We find the professors 
who know how to teach pursuing this plan to the great 
advantage of the students. The professor comes to 
know the work of each student. Occasionally he has 
a written recitation, but has no use for term test ex- 
aminations or for final examinations. Good oral teach- 
ing is constantly supplemented by written work in our 
elementary schools. 

7. The Good in the Old is retained in the New. 
Only the evils of the test examination are discarded. 
The written recitation embodies the spirit of the new 
education, just as the test examination embodied the 
spirit of the old education. It helps and does not 
hurt. It is safe and all-sufficient. Many of our best 
teachers and most progressive schools have substituted 
the written recitation for the test examination with 
gratifying results. They have exchanged a hurtful for 
a helpful device. It is reasonable to predict that the 
test examination early in the twentieth century will 
disappear as a school device, and will be replaced by 
the beneficent written recitation. Good teaching and 
efficient study will become the rule. 



GOOD TEACHING. 189 

Good Teaching in Lieu of Per-cent Marking. 

It is safe to class per-cent marking as a hurtful de- 
vice. As the rod was the panacea of the old school- 
master, so marking is the panacea of the modern 
stationary teacher. He sits with pencil in hand and 
marks each answer, marks each violation of the rules. 
Progressive educators substitute vital teaching for 
marking and all other hurtful devices. Colonel F. W. 
Parker regards per-cent marking as criminal as steal- 
ing. Superintendent Arnold Tompkins considers the 
percentage device as an outrage on the learning proc- 
ess. " If 100 per cent,'' says Dr. E. E. White, " were 
a chosen idol, then worship of this percentage god 
would not be more harmful than it is in many schools." 
Per-cent marking injures teacher and pupils, nor has it 
a sinde redeemino; feature ; it hurts and does not help. 
1. Good Teaching appeals to all High Incentives. 
Study is duty ; study fits pupils to help others ; study 
is full of interest ; study leads up to knowledge and 
usefulness. True teaching educates, for it keeps the 
learner face to face with the beauty world and the 
truth world and the duty world. Every lesson makes 
for character as well as for scholarship. But per-cent 
marking is a low incentive. It magnifies success at 
the expense of fidelity. It fosters a brood of school 
vipers, such as honours, prizes, and hurtful emula- 
tions. It abounds in the exact ratio of poor teaching ; 
the poorer the teaching the more perfect the mark- 
ing. Good teaching leaves no time or occasion for 
marking. Too often per-cent marking proves an 
antidote to high thinking and moral teaching. 



190 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. Good Teaching induces Effective Study. The 
pupil is deeply interested in the subject, and does his 
best to find out. The teacher encourages and guides 
effort, and leads the pupils in their exploring expedi- 
tions. The pupil comes to count truth more precious 
than diamonds. Truth is its own reward, but per-cent 
marking is an extraneous incentive. Marking pro- 
poses as a reward for mechanical success a high mark, 
and as a punishment for mechanical failure a low 
mark. It may make an army of slaves to the per-cent 
god, but it does not create a thirst for truth. At best 
it is an artificial and hurtful incentive. It comes like 
a hideous goblin between the teacher and the pupils, 
between the learner and the subject, between the 
learner and the truth. 

3. Good Teaching is All-svffiGient. This makes 
the kindergarten a thing of beauty and the modern 
primary school a delight. The teacher understands 
the little ones and adapts the work to them. Each 
one is kept interested and busy. All come to love 
the work. Marking is not even dreamed of in kinder- 
garten and primary classes. Good teaching is all- 
sufficient at all stages of growth. Per-cent marking 
nowhere works pupil goo'd. Good teaching, from 
the kindergarten to the university, excludes marking 
as not only useless but also vicious. 

4. Good Teaching economizes Time and Energy. 
Pupil energy and pupil time are precious things. 
Good teaching makes pupil effort educative and im- 
proves the golden moments as they fly. The teacher 
teaches. Per-cent marking squanders time and en- 
ergy. Per-cent marking with its train of evils — 



GOOD TEACHING. 191 

prizes, honours, test examinations, per-cent records, 
per-cent reports — wastes, in many schools, full half 
the energies of teacher and pupils. It is the monster 
educational robber. It hurts and does not help. The 
schoolkeeper marks, but the true teacher teaches. 

5. Good Teaching discards all Forms of Com- 
parative Ifarking. All marking that compels the 
study of the relative merits of pupils is essentially 
vicious. The words Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent, are 
preferable to per-cent marks, for they indicate qual- 
ity of work rather than quantity. But all the same 
the fundamental law is violated. Pupil must be com- 
pared with pupil. As an incentive to good conduct 
and earnest study, qualitative marking retains many of 
the evils of per-cent marking. All marking, qualita- 
tive or quantitative, in which pupil is compared with 
pupil, is decidedly hurtful. But one question is either 
necessary or permissible : " Is the pupil doing well ? " 
This the teacher asks himself, and spares no effort to 
secure an affirmative answer. Good teaching is the 
legitimate substitute for all extraneous incentives and 
the infallible remedy for the deplorable marking habit. 

Educative Pecords and Peports in Lieu of 
Percentage Bookkeeping. 

What will help and not hurt? Elaborate school 
bookkeeping is simply inexcusable ; it is one of the 
numerous evils charged to the account of the percent- 
age system. It needlessly dissipates teaching energy ; 
it imposes weary drudgery without giving any help- 
ful returns. School bookkeeping should be reduced 
to the minimum. The blank spaces opposite the names 



192 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

indicate satisfactory conduct and scholarship ; all the 
time and energies of the teacher are devoted to teach- 
ing- 

1. Attendance is indicated hy a Blanh Space. 

Absence is indicated by a I ; this beconaes f in case 
of A. M. tardiness ; becomes L in case of p. m. tardi- 
ness ; becomes -\- when the absence is excused. By 
dividing the school or class into sections, with leaders 
to report the absent, the roll call is almost instanta- 
neous, even in large schools and classes. I^o time or 
energy is wasted in keeping the attendance record. 
The blank is the sign of the clear record. 

2. Conduct, when Satisfactory^ is indicated hy a 
Blanh Space. When unsatisfactory, it is indicated 
by U. The U is written in pencil, in order that it 
may be erased as soon as the pupil's conduct becomes 
satisfactory. A clear record is a blank. It is a de- 
sideratum to so manage that each pupil will have a 
clear conduct record. Demerit marks are not even 
thought of by the progressive teacher or his pupils. 
The teacher studies most of all to promote good con- 
duct. When a record or report is to be made, one 
question, and only one, is asked, " Is the pupil's con- 
duct, taken as a whole, satisfactory ? " This plan is 
in the line of conduct culture and wastes no time or 
energy. 

3. Class Standing is indicated hy a Blanh Space 
lohen Satisfactory. When unsatisfactory, it is indi- 
cated by the letter U. "Is the pupil doing good 
work ? " " Is the learner keeping with his class ? " 
The blank indicates the affirmative and the U a nega- 
tive answer. The U is in pencil. The teacher spares 



GOOD TEACHING. 193 

no effort to induce the pupil to so work that the U may 
be erased. The record is strictly private ; it is for the 
teacher, not for the pupils. The teacher must know 
his pupils and must see clearly their limitations. The 
ideal class will have no U's in the final record. The 
U indicates that the pupil is not working with the class, 
and that he must work up or be dropped to a lower 
class. As long as a pupil works with his class no record 
is needed ; but when a pupil is failing to keep with his 
class the matter must receive attention. The utmost 
skill of the teacher is required in these cases. 

4. Reports indicate the Standing of the Pupil. 
Conduct and scholarship, when satisfactory, are indi- 
cated by S, and by U when unsatisfactory. Parents 
and pupils will readily understand the monthly re- 
port cards, and school boards will easily understand 
the monthly reports. The words Poor, Fair, Good, 
JExcellent, now used in the reports of most schools, 
have many advantages over percentages. The esti- 
mate of standing is qualitative, not quantitative ; it 
requires no explanation. But these harmless words oc- 
casion a world of trouble. Each pupil must be com- 
pared with his fellows and elaborate records must be 
kept. The teacher must waste precious hours settling 
the relative standing of pupils. This is something that 
ought never to be thought of. Pupils will certainly 
study in view of these distinctions, and will suffer 
nearly all the evils of per-cent marking. Clearly 
such records and reports hurt and do not help. They 
are not educative. They compare pupil with pupil 
and thus foster jealousies and rivalries. Parents and 

school boards do not wish details; all they desire to 
14 



194 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

know is whether the pupil is or is not doing well. 
The S signifies that the pupil is progressing satisfac- 
torily ; the U signifies that the pupil is not doing 
well. Whatever is more than this comes of evil. 
Such records and reports answer all educative pur- 
poses. They require the minimum amount of teacher 
energy. This plan commends itself to all thoughtful 
educators ; and is equally suited to all schools from the 
kindergarten to the university. 

Good Teaching prepares for Promotion and 
Graduation. 

Interest in study leads to mastery. Day by day 
the pupil does his best in the best ways. Growth is 
the result. Good conduct and good scholarship come 
of good teaching and good management. 

1. Promotion follows Satisfactory Worh. It does 
not depend on per-cent marks or on test examinations. 
Pupils study to know. They become interested in the 
work and advance with their classes. As the days go 
by, pupils found able to work more profitably with 
higher classes are promoted, and pupils who prove un- 
able to work with their classes are demoted. As the 
terms go by, pupils who do satisfactory work go for- 
ward with the classes. The teacher knows. There 
can be no possible excuse for per-cent marking or for 
test examinations as conditions for promotion or gradu- 
ation ; such devices occasion a world of trouble and 
do incalculable injury. Good management and good 
teaching remedy these evils. 

2. Graduation folloios the Satisfactory Comjple- 
tion of the Course. The pupil advances, step by 



GOOD TEACHING. 195 

step, through the elementary work and receives the 
elementary-school certificate ; this entitles him to 
enter the high school. The student advances, year 
by year, in the high-scliool work, and on its satis- 
factory completion receives the high-school diploma; 
this entitles him to enter the normal school or the 
college. The college student completes satisfactorily 
a college course and receives the college diploma ; this 
entitles him to enter a professional school. The ele- 
mentary certificate means that the pupil has satisfac- 
torily completed the elementary-school course and is 
prepared to do high-school work. The high-school 
diploma means that the student has satisfactorily com- 
pleted a high-school course and is prepared for col- 
leo-e work. The college diploma means that the stu- 
dent has satisfactorily completed a college course and 
is prepared to enter a professional school or begin his 
life work. 

The plan thus outlined eliminates hurtful drudgery 
and harmful devices and substitutes good teaching. It 
makes all school work educative. It substitutes high 
motives for low incentives. The per-cent marking per- 
functory drudge will for a time plod on in his ruts, but 
the true teacher will teach and grow and bless. The 
teacher must not be fanatical nor even extreme, but 
must be progressive. What human reason has demon- 
strated and human experience verified, that is safe. 
Educational conservatism becomes a crime when it 
keeps teachers in the ruts. We dare not keep on in 
ways that work our pupils irreparable injury ; nor do 
we dare to deprive our pupils of the advantages of 
new and better ways. 



196 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
EDUCATIVE CLASS MANAGEMENT. 

EDUCATIVE STUDY HINTS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

XV. Class Organization and Control. — Describe the evolution of 
classification. Compare individualism and classification. In the 
school sense, what is a true class ? Discuss objects of classifica- 
tion : plan of classification ; size of classes ; inspiration of the 
class ; advantages of the class. Describe the hygienic conditions 
of educative class work. How does it help to give a short recess 
at the close of each school hour? State some of the advantages 
of happy class control. Why must each teacher work out anew 
the problems of classification f Describe the scheme for classify- 
ing the rural school; the primary; the intermediate; the high 
school ; the college. Why do educators plan simplicity ? uni- 
formity? unity? Describe your scheme for classifying your 
school. 

XVI. Educative ClasB Work. — Make clear the difference between 
educative and noneducative class work. Give the old and new 
meaning of recitation. Why do you prefer class worh'^ Name 
some characteristics of excellent class work. Discuss fully spon- 
taneity ; revealing and concealing ; review and recapitulation ; 
lesson plan ; the drill ; the pre-survey. 

Define class methods ; efficient class methods ; hurtful class 
methods. Discuss the unity method ; the individual method ; 
the investigation method ; the Socratic method ; the conversa- 
tion method ; the topic method ; the discussion method ; the lec- 
ture method. Give an example of each. 

Define class device. Hlustrate the distinction you make be- 
tween a class method and a class device. State some advantages 
claimed for the following devices : The class ; written work ; labo- 
ratory work; diagrams; reporting; reciprocal teaching; concert 
work : original devices. 

XVII. School and Class Tactics. — Give the meaning and object 
of school tactics. What do you mean by helpful tactics? by hurt- 
ful tactics ? State some underlying principles. Give some reasons 
why every school should have an electric programme clock. De- 
scribe the economic plan for calling and dismissing school ; calling 
and dismissing classes. Describe fitting recitation tactics ; board 



GOOD TEACHING. 197 

tactics ; concert tactics. Why do you favour reasonable school and 
class tactics"? 

XVIII. Oral "Work and Book Work.— Why do we think of the old 
education as bookwork ? W hat does the new education do ? Why 
must oral work precede and accompany bookwork? Discuss oral 
work in the kindergarten ; in conduct lessons ; in language-liter- 
ature lessons; in science lessons; in mathematic lessons; in art 

lessons. 

What is meant by oral teaching'? Give an example of obser- 
vation oral teaching ; of the story ; of illustration ; of drawing ; 
of example. Name three advantages claimed for oral teaching. 

What is meant by book teaching? Compare book and oral 
teaching. Discuss assigning lessons; studying book lessoiis; 
teaching book lessons. Why does Dr. Harris consider the^art of 
properly using books the greatest of school arts ? See pp. 75, 80. 

XIX. Good TeacMng in Lieu of Extraneous Incentives.— Com- 
pare good teaching and perfunctory class work. Contrast the 
written recitation and the test examination. Discuss the reasons 
for transforming the examination into the written recitation. De- 
scribe the marking expert. What does Colonel Parker say about 
100 per cent? Dr. White? Superintendent Thompson? What 
have you to say ? Discuss the reasons why good teaching should 
take the place of per-cent marking. 

What is meant by educative records and reports? Explain 
your plan of calling roll and recording attendance. State advan- 
tages. State your plan of keeping the conduct record. W^hy is 
it better than the old per-cent record? Explain your plan of 
keeping the scholarship record. Give your reasons for it. Ex- 
plain your method of reporting. What are its advantages? Why 
is qualitative marking better than quantitative? Give your rea- 
sons for discarding both. Show the great advantages of the ra- 
tional method of promotion and graduation. Why should we 
discard the old plan of having per-cent marks and test exami- 
nations determine promotion and graduation ? Show that good 
teaching tends to consign all extraneous school incentives to the 
limbo of hurtful school devices. 



PART V. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH BETTER 

SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 

AND CORRELATION 



CHAPTER XX. — Pupil Improvement through Educative Cor- 
relation OF Schools and School Courses. 

XXI. — Pupil Improvement through Efficient 
Rural Schools. 

XXII. — Pupil Improvement through Efficient Kin- 
dergarten AND Primary Schools. 

XXI II. — Pupil Improvement through Specialized and 
Correlated Intermediate Schools. 

XXIV. — Pupil Improvement through Specialized and 

Correlated High Schools. 
XXV. — Student Improvement through Progressive 
and Correlated Colleges and Universi- 
ties. 

199 



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PART FIFTH. 

BETTER SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 
AND CORRELATION 



CHAPTER XX. 

EDrCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL 

COURSES. 

Education is the Science of Self-evolution. — Growth 
through lawful self-activity is the central idea in the 
science of education. Teaching is the art of pro- 
moting self-evolution. Growth through guided self- 
effort is the central idea in the teaching art. In the 
mental economy all the activities of a self supplement 
and re-enforce each activity ; there is perfect unity in 
the mental life. In the educational economy the 
learner assimilates into unity his acquisitions, and all 
studies supplement and re-enforce each study. The 
pupil world is a unit. Schools and subjects are corre- 
lated into organic unity to facilitate the preparation 
of pupils for complete living. 

The Organic Unity of Schools and Courses forms an 
Educational Highway. — Courses of study present the 
processes of self -evolution in terms of subject-matter ; 

201 



202 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

no one can teach a grade or a subject intelligently 
without a grasp of its organic relations to the whole. 
Correlation of the schools, the colleges, and courses of 
study constitute an educational highway leading up 
from feeble infancy to strong manhood ; from the 
nursery to all fields of achieN''ement. The central 
idea in its construction is pupil improvement Around 
this vital principle we seek to correlate into organic 
unity our schools and our school work. The aim is 
to make the most of the individual self and the so- 
cial self and the cosmic self, thus enriching human 
life. Our ideal is unceasing educational progress. 
"We study to embody in the educative organism the 
best thought and the most helpful experience of the 
race ; we strive to advance from the good to the bet- 
ter and from the better to the best. 

The Parts are studied in View of the Whole. — The 
physiologist thinks of the human body as a complex 
unit, and he studies each organ and function in its re- 
lations to other organs and functions and to the entire 
organism. The teacher thinks of schools and school 
work as an organic unit, and he studies each class of 
schools in its relations to other classes of schools and 
in its relation to the whole school organism. He 
studies each subject in its relation to other subjects 
and to the entire school work. 

The Intelligent Teacher learns to view Human Life 
as a Whole. — He comes to think of the world as a 
school and of human beings as learners. In the home 
he studies the budding infant ; in the kindergarten he 
observes the happy little ones playing and growing ; 
in the primary he watches the glad children playing, 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 203 

working, growing ; in the intermediate he enjoys the 
wild activities and the vigorous explorations of boys 
and girls ; in the high school he beconries deeply in- 
terested in the hopes and achievements of aspiring 
youths ; in the college he lives over again with the 
gifted students the struggles of other years ; in the 
battle of life he watches with throbbing heart the suc- 
cesses and failures of his pupils; and as the toilers 
one by one pass over the river, he seems to hear the 
" Well done " of the Great Teacher as he welcomes 
them to the celestial university. 

Each Class of Schools stands for a Stage of Growth. — 
The world's chiefest work is the creation and conduct 
of articulated schools adapted to the well-defined 
stages of pupil development. We study infancy and 
create the kindergarten to lead the infants from the 
home to the school ; we study childhood and create 
the primary to lead the children from the kindergar- 
ten to the intermediate ; we study boyhood and girl- 
hood and create the intermediate to lead boys and 
girls from the primary to the high school ; we study 
youth and create the high school to lead the youths 
from the intermediate to the college ; we study young 
manhood and young womanhood and create the col- 
lege to lead young men and women from the high 
school to the university. Thus the ideal educational 
highway embodies the world's educational ideal. Our 
various classes of schools and the school work are cor- 
related into organic educational unity. 

The Course of Study, in terms of subjects, repre- 
sents the stages of pupil growth. The educator pro- 
foundly studies pupil environments, pupil nature, and 



204 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

pupil growth that he may provide for pupil needs. 
He thinks of the pupil as a cosmic being, needing to 
be brought in educative touch with the universe. He 
selects from boundless fields the best. He adapts the 
work to the growing pupil. He grades the educa- 
tional highway to meet the wants of the pupils at all 
stages of development. The progressive teacher ear- 
nestly studies the correlation of schools and courses 
of study. The kindergartner as well as the college 
professor thinks of the schools and the school work 
as an organic unit. Each as an intelligent artist does 
his work in view of the whole ; each phase of a sub- 
ject is taught in view of all its school phases, in view 
of the entire school work, in view of life. 

Studies are selected in View of their Educative Values. 
— Education prepares the pupil for complete living. 
Those subjects which do most to develop power and to 
fit the pupil for complete living have the highest edu- 
cative values. Studies rich in incentives and calculated 
to call forth vigorous and persistent effort have high 
educative values. Branches of study tending to awaken 
the widest interests, tending to best develop and train 
the activities of the pupil, tending to best fit the pupil 
to act well his part in the complex civilization in which 
he must live, are counted of the highest educative value. 
Expressed in terms of physiological psychology, a 
study that awakens, strengthens, and develops the 
highest brain areas, such as are connected with thought 
and the higher emotions and the moral wdll, is of the 
greatest educative value. From the wide field of 
human learning studies counted of highest educative 
values are selected and organized into courses of study. 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 205 

Co-ordinate Study Groups.— The grouping of the 
school studies is an important educational device naade 
necessary by the startling multiplication of branches 
claiming a place in the school course. Two schemes 
for grouping the school studies are here outlined — the 
philosophic grouping by Dr. W. T. Harris and the 
practical grouping by the author. The educational 
world accepts the scheme of Dr. Harris as the true 
basis of all courses of study. 

The Five Necessary Co-ordinate Groups of Studies. 

" The studies of the school fall naturally into five co-ordinate 
groups, thus permitting a choice within each group as to the 
arrangement of its several topics. These five co-ordinate groups 
are : First, mathematics and physics ; second, biology, as includ- 
ing chiefly the plant and the animal ; third, literature and art, in- 
cluding chiefly the study of literary works of art ; fourth, gram- 
mar and the technical and scientific study of language, leading to 
such branches as logic and psychology; fifth, history and the 
study of sociological, political, and social institutions. Each one 
of these groups should be represented in the curriculum at all 
times by some topic suited to the age and previous training of the 
pupil. This is demanded by the two kinds of correlation: (1) 
Symmetrical Whole of Studies in the World of Human Learning, 
and (2) The Psychological Symmetry, or the Whole Mind. 

" The first stage of school education is education for culture 
and education for the purpose of gaining command of the con- 
ventionalities of intelligence. These conventionalities are such 
arts as reading and writing and the use of figures, technicalities 
of maps, dictionaries, the art of drawing, and all of those semi- 
mechanical facilities which enable the child to get access to the 
intellectual conquests of the race. Later on in the school course, 
when the pupil passes out of his elementary studies, which par- 
take more of the nature of art than of science, he arrives in the 
secondary school and the college to the study of science and the 
technique necessary for its preservation and communication. All 
these things belong to the first stage of school instruction whose 



206 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

aim is culture. Post-graduate work and the work of professional 
schools has not the aim of culture so much as the aim of fitting 
the person for a special vocation. It is in the first- stage, the 
schools for culture, that these five co-ordinate branches should be 
represented in a symmetrical manner. It is not to be thought 
that a professional school or a course of university study should 
be symmetrical. From the primary school on through the ' 
academic course of the college there should be symmetry and five 
co-ordinate groups of studies represented at each part of the 
course ; at least in each year, although perhaps not throughout 
each part of the year. 

" I. Inorganic Nature. — Commencing with the outlook of the 
child upon the world of Nature, it has been found that arithmetic, 
or mathematical study, furnishes the first scientific key to the ex- 
istence of bodies and their various motions. Mathematics in its 
pure form, as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and the application 
of the analytical method, as well as mathematics in its applied 
form to matter and force, or statics and dynamics, furnishes us 
the peculiar study that gives to us, whether as children or as men, 
the command of Nature in this aspect. It is all quantitative. 
Mathematics furnishes the instrument, the tool of thought, which 
gives us power in this realm. 

" II. Organic Nature. — The second group includes whatever is 
organic in Nature, especially studies relating to the plant and the 
animal, the growth of material for food and clothing, and in a large 
measure the means of transportation and culture. This study of 
the organic phase of Nature forms a great portion of the branch 
of study known as geography in the elementary school. These 
two phases of Nature, the inorganic and the organic, exhaust the 
entire field. Hence a quantitative study, conducted in pure and 
applied mathematics, and biology, or the study of life in its 
manifestations, cover Nature. 

" III. Literature. — The first study relating to human nature as 
contrasted with mere organic and inorganic Nature is literature. * 
Literature, as the fifth highest of the fine arts, reveals human na- 
ture in its intrinsic form. It may be said in general that a literary 
work of art, a poem, whether lyric, dramatic, or epic, or a prose 
work of art, such as a novel or a drama, reveals human nature in 
its height and depth. It shows the growth of a feeling or senti- 
ment first into a conviction and then into a deed ; feelings, 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 207 

thoughts, and deeds are thus systematically unfolded by a literary 
work of art in such a way as to explain a complete genesis of 
human action. Moreover, in a literary work of art there is a 
revelation of man as a member of social institutions. 

" IV. Language. — Our next co-ordinate branch includes gram- 
mar and language, and studies allied to it, such as logic and psy- 
chology. In the elementary school we have simply grammar. 
Grammar treats of the structure of language. There is a me- 
chanical side to it in orthography and a technical side to it in 
each of its phases. But one can not call grammar in any peculiar 
sense a formal study any more than he can apply the same epithet 
to natural science of any kind. The method of grammar leads to 
wonderful insight into the nature of reason itself. It is this 
insight which it gives us into our methods of thinking and of 
uttering our thoughts that furnishes the justification for grammar 
as one of the leading studies in the curriculum. Its use in teach- 
ing correct speaking and writing is always secondary. 

"V. History. — There is a fifth co-ordinate group of studies, 
namely, that of history. History looks to the formation of the 
state as the chief of human institutions. The development of 
states ; the collisions of individuals with the state ; the collisions 
of the states with one another — these form the topics of history. 
The method of history keeps its gaze fixed upon the development 
of the social whole and the progress which it makes in realiz- 
ing within its citizens the freedom of the whole. This method, it 
is evident enough, is different from the literary ; different from 
the grammatical ; different also from the biological and the 
mathematical methods. In history we see how the little selves, or 
individuals, unite to form the big self, or the nation. 

" The studies of the school fall naturally into these five co-ordi- 
nate groups. No one of these groups can be taken as a substitute 
for any other, and no one of these groups can be spared from a 
symmetrical whole without distorting the pupil's view of the 
world."— W. T. Harris. 



The Fiye Practical Co-ordinate Study Groups. 

School courses are products of experience. The- 
ory determines the what, but experience determines 



208 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

the liow. Theory demonstrates the necessity for 
the live co-ordinate groups of studies, but experi- 
ence arranges the studies in five co-ordinate groups 
for practical school work. First of all, we have the 
conduct group of studies ; second, the language-liter- 
ature group ; third, the science group ; fourth, the 
mathematics group ; and fifth, the art group. The 
school work seems to naturally fall into these groups. 
The practical grouping aims to embody all the re- 
quirements of the philosophical grouping, and it is 
hoped that it will prove to be a reasonable basis for 
helpful correlation and concentration in school and 

college work. 

1. Conduct lessons, elementary ethics, 
ethics. 

2. Biographical history, comparative his- 
tory, philosophic history. 

3. Oral civics, elementary civics, civics. 

4. Mind lessons, elementary psychology, 
philosophy. 



L The Conduct 
Group of Studies, < 
[Read Chapter XXVI.] 



Conduct is the Greatest Thing in Education. — School 
principals and college presidents are specialists in con- 
duct culture, and hence are charged with the conduct 
group of studies. In the elementary school, conduct 
lessons include school conduct, how to study, and spe- 
cial lessons in proper and right conduct. In the high 
school, practical ethics is so presented as to make for 
good conduct. In the college, advanced ethics is so 
studied as to promote character growth. History, re- 
enforced by literature, is the great conduct study. 
Civics helps to prepare for good citizenship. Mind 
lessons lead pupils to understand themselves, and psy- 
chology leads on to logic and philosophy. Religion 
unobtrusively, in the opening exercises and in the life 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OP SCHOOLS. 209 



of the teacher, leads pupils up to the ideal conduct as 
embodied in the life of Jesus. Wisely taught, all the 
school studies make for character as well as for schol- 
arship ; but there seems to be special fitness in group- 
ins the above-named studies as conduct studies. 



n. The Language-Literature 

Group of Studies. 

LRead Chapter XXVII.] 



1. Reading, expression. 

2. English language and liter- 

ature. 

3. Foreign languages and liter- 

atures. 



Literature stands for human nature at its best. 
The language-literature studies are accorded the sec- 
ond place in the educative scheme, and are given in 
school and college programmes double the time of 
the other study groups. Literature and language are 
inseparable in school work. From the kindergarten 
to the university, the new education teaches language 
in teaching literature, and teaches literature in teach- 
ing language. Literature most of all supplements 
and re-enforces the conduct studies. Language studies 
supplement all other studies. 

r 1. Geography, geology. 

I 2. Biology. 

3. Physics, chemistry. 

4. Astronomy. 



IIL The Science Group of Studies. 
[Read Chapter XXVIII.] 



The science studies re-enforced by mathematics 
lead to the mastery of our environments. In the 
science group of studies are included both organic and 
inorganic Kature studies. The grounds for this in- 
clusion are strictly practical. The learner at all stages 
of work keeps in touch with both organic and inor- 
ganic Nature. Then, in most schools the science 
15 



210 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

teacher is charged with all the science work. Science 
is now conceded a place side by side with literature 
and mathematics in our educational work. The im- 
mense educative and practical value of the science 
studies is now unquestioned. The tendency is to 
give undue prominence to this group of studies, but 
thoughtful educators study proportion and fitness. 



IV. The Mathematics 



1. Arithmetic, algebra, calculus. 

2. Concrete geometry, geometry. 
Group of Studies. ^ 3. Oral trigonometry, trigonometry. 

[Read Chapter XXIX.] | 4. Oral bookkeeping, applied mathe- 
[^ matics. 

Form and number enter into all thinking. Arith- 
metic is the first tool of thought, the first step in the 
conquest of ISTature. Geometry stands for form, and 
is counted the central study in the group. From the 
kindergarten to the university arithmetic and geome- 
try permeate school work. We think of mathematics 
as including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonome- 
try, and applied mathematics. Logically, the inor- 
ganic sciences are grouped with mathematics. So 
great is the educative and practical value of these 
studies that mathematics is everywhere placed side by 
side with literature and science in our school work. 

f 1. Physical culture. 

V. The Art Group of Studies. J 2. Writing, drawing. 

[Read Chapter XXX.] j 3. Vocal music. 

(^ 4. Manual training. 

The art studies stand for the useful and the beau- 
tiful. The art studies re-enforce the other study 
groups. Physical culture is the art of developing 
physical vigour. Drawing is the central school art. 
At every step, in nearly all subjects, the hand and the 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 211 

eye are made to re-enforce thought. Yocal music in 
our school work is now ranked with arithmetic and 
geography. Its educative vakie is conceded. Man- 
ual training, in some form, will be given a place in 
the schools of the future. The arts mentioned are the 
school arts. The higher aesthetic and practical arts 
belong in colleges and universities and art schools. 

The Five Practical Study Groups represent Human 
Learning. — From the standpoint of actual school work 
the grouping seems to be natural, logical, and prac- 
tical ; it accords substantially with the results of hu- 
man experience as embodied in the work of our 
schools and colleges. The five groups include all de- 
partments of human learning, and seem to furnish a 
practical basis for the natural and helpful correlation 
of studies in school work. Moreover, the five prac- 
tical study groups seem to be the true basis for organ- 
izing school faculties, for planning concentration in 
teaching, and for arranging school programmes. 

Elementary Schools and Course of Study. 

Elementary schools include all schools between the 
kindergarten and the high school. The eight years 
from the sixth to the fourteenth year constitute the 
elementary school period. We class as elementary 
schools our public and private rural schools, primary 
schools, and intermediate schools. We tliink of the 
elementary course of study as extending through the 
eight years of elementary school life. 

Report of the Committee of Fifteen on the Correla- 
tion of Studies in Elementary Schools.* — This is counted 

* Published by American Book Company. 



212 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

the most helpful of all our educational classics, and is 
adopted and submitted as a part of this chapter. 
Please read considerately the entire report before tak- 
ing up the following items. 

Programme Course of Study for Elementary Schools. 



Branches 


1st year 


2d year 


3d year 


4th year 


5th year 


6th year 


7th year 


8th year 


Heading 


10 lessons a "weeTi 


5 lessons a week 


"Writing 


10 lessons a week 


5 lessons a week 


3 lessons a week 




Spelling lists 






. 


4 lessons a week 






English 

Grammar 


Oral, with composition lessons 


5 lessons a week witli 
text-book 




Latin 
















5 lessons 


Arithmetic 


Oral, 60 minutes 
a week 


5 lessons a week witli text-Tjook 




















5 lessons a week 




Geography 


Oral, 60 minutes a "weelj 


*5 lessons a week with texl-l)ook 


3 lessonB a week 


Natural Science 
-)- Hygiene 


Sixty minutes a weelc 


U. S. History-. 














5 lessons a 
week 




U. S. Constitu- 
tion 


















*5 
les. 


General 

History 


Oral, 60 minutes a week 


Physical 

Culture 


Sixty minutes a week 


Vocal Music — 


Sixty minutes a week 
divided into 4. lessons 




Sixty minutes a week 




Manual Train. 

or Sewing -\- 

CooTicry 














One-half day each 


No. of Lessons 


20 + 7 
daily 
exer. 


20+7 
daily 
exer. 


20+5 
daily 
exer. 


24+5 
daily 
exer. 


27+5 
daily 
exer. 


27+5 
daily 
exer. 


23+6 
daily 
exer. 


23+6 
daily 
exer. 


Total Hours of 
Recitations 


12 


13 


n% 


13 


161^ 


WA 


17K 


IVA 


Length of 
Recitations 


15 min. 


15 min. 


20 min. 


20 min. 


25 min. 


25 min. 


30 min. 


30 min. 



*Begins in second kalf year 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 213 



Some Condensed Explanations. 

1. Elementary Period.— All schools between the kindergarten 
and the high school are elementary schools. Papils are from six 
to fourteen years of age. The time (eight years) now devoted to 
elementary-school work should not be reduced. 

2. Recitation Periods. — Recitations are class exercises conducted 
by the teacher. As far as possible, study periods and recitation 
periods should alternate. It is recommended that recitation pe- 
riods be fifteen minutes during the first and second years, twenty 
minutes during the third and fourth years, twenty-five minutes 
during the fifth and sixth years, and thirty minutes during the 
seventh and eighth years. 

3. Recitation Time.— The programme shows twenty-seven week- 
ly recitation periods during the first and second years, twenty-five 
during the third year, twenty-nine during the fourth year, twenty- 
seven during the fifth and sixth years, and twenty-three during 
the seventh and eighth years. The primary pupils give to recita- 
tions daily from two and one third to two and two thirds hours ; 
the intermediate pupils, from three and one fourth to three and 
three fourths hours. 

4. Promotions. — Promotions should be made when the pupils 
complete the work of the class, and also when a pupil is prepared 
to work more profitably with a higher class. Keeping pupils 
marking time produces demoralization. The intervals between 
the classes must depend on the school. In graded schools it is 
now half a year or less, but in rural schools the intervals are 
necessarily much greater. 

5. Few Subjects. — The prolonged study of a few subjects is in- 
comparably better than the brief study of many subjects. Our 
schools are at their best when they lead the pupils to develop 
power through the mastery of the best studies. 

6. Correlation of Studies.— By this is meant— (1) The arrange- 
ment of topics in proper sequence in the course of study, in such 
a manner that each branch develops in an order suited to the 
natural and easy progress of the child, and so that each step is 
taken at the proper time to help his advance to the next step in 
the same branch, or to the next steps in other related branches of 
the course of study. (2) The adjustment of the branches of study 



214: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

in such a manner that the whole course at any given time repre- 
sents all the great divisions of human learning, as far as is possi- 
ble at the stage of maturity at which the pupil has arrived, and 
that each allied group of studies is represented by some one of its 
branches best adapted for the epoch in question. (3) The selec- 
tion and arrangement of the branches and topics within each 
branch, considered psychologically, with a view to afford the best 
exercise of the faculties of the mind, and to secure the unfolding 
of those faculties in their natural order, so that no one faculty is 
so overeultivated or so neglected as to produce abnormal or one- 
sided mental development. (4) The selection and arrangement in 
orderly sequence of such objects of study as shall give the child 
an insight into the world that he lives in, and a command over its 
resources such as is obtained by a helpful co-operation with one's 
fellows. — From Report of Committee of Fifteen. 

Secondary Scpiools and Courses of Study. 

Schools leading from the elementary school up to 
the college are classed as secondary schools. These 
include public high schools, academies, seminaries, 
private high schools, and preparatory schools. The 
high-school period is four years, the pupils entering 
at about the age of fourteen and graduating at about 
the age of eighteen. 

Report of the Committee of Ten.^ — This report on 
the work of secondary schools as suggestive and as a 
working basis is submitted as a part of this chapter. 
For our larger high schools the committee arranged 
four parallel courses of study. A few condensed ex- 
planations seem necessary. 

1. Purpose of High Schools. — The main function 
of secondary schools is to prepare pupils for the duties 
of life. They do not exist to prepare pupils for col- 

* Published by American Book Company. 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 215 



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216 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

lege. The work for the most part is the same for all 
pupils. 

2. The Four Parallel Courses. — These are sub- 
stantially the same, except as to language and liter- 
ature. The classical course necessarily reduces the 
work in English and in science ; the other courses are 
nearly identical, with the exception of foreign lan- 
guages. In our smaller high schools only one course 
can be sustained, but provisions may be made for. 
some options. 

3. Recitation Periods. — Each course is limited to 
twenty recitation periods each week. These periods 
are usually forty minutes in length. The plan gives 
the pupil daily three prepared lessons and two conver- 
sational or drill lessons. 

4. Laboratory Work and Manual Training. — 
Pupils devote two hours on Saturdaj^s to practical 
work. This includes laboratory work, manual train- 
ing, and outdoor instruction in science. 

5. Correlation. — The aim is to correlate the work 
of elementary schools, secondary schools, and col- 
leges. The plan is to have the elementary certificate 
pass the pupil into the high school, and to have the 
high-school diploma pass the pupil into the college. 
The correlation of subjects was not given specific 
attention. 

6. Omissions. — The committee limited their work 
to leading subjects. It is supposed that time will be 
found for drawing, music, physical culture, manual 
training, elementary psychology, and practical ethics. 



EDUCATIVE CORRELATION OF SCHOOLS. 217 



Colleges and College Courses. 

The college stands for the highest school culture. 
The college period, from about the eighteenth to 
about the twenty-second year, is termed young man- ■ 
hood and young womanhood. Students are now ca- 
pable of greater things. The school and college courses 
are so correlated that the high-school graduate will 
pass into the college and move on with the Avork 
without a break. The studies are the same as in the 
elementary and secondary schools, but the phases and 
methods are widely different. In the general course 
of study on page 300 the outline of the college course 
is sufficient to indicate the work. Let us now turn 
back to that outline, and in imagination go with the 
pupils as they advance in each study. We enjoy the 
conduct lessons of the elementary school, the practical 
ethics of the high school, and the ethical philosophy 
of the college. As we thus go with the pupils in the 
several studies through the elementary school, through 
the high school, and through the college, we gain in- 
sight into the unity of the school and college work, 
and learn to think of it as a whole. We can now take 
up each group of schools and intelligently study its 
work in view of the general course of study. Such 
study will fit us as nothing else can to do well our re- 
spective parts in educating the race. 



218 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



CHAPTER XXI. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THEOUGH EFFICIENT RURAL 
SCHOOLS. 

More than half of our pupils get their entire edu- 
cation in our country schools. A majority of our 
leaders in all fields of high endeavour get their start 
in our rural schools. These facts indicate the tre- 
mendous importance of making these schools as effi- 
cient as possible. Inefficiency, as a rule, still char- 
acterizes the management of our rural schools. 

The Story of the Country School is inexpressibly 
Pathetic. — History is the story of human progress, 
but hitherto our rural schools can scarcely be said to 
have made history. Even through the most marvellous 
decades of educational advancement our rural schools 
have remained comparatively stationary. As the cen- 
tury closes, we grieve to say it, our country schools 
are nowhere satisfactory. Everywhere our rural 
youths are systematically dwarfed. But light is 
breaking. County supervision is very helpful. The 
movements to group our rural schools and give them 
district supervision promises great things. In densely 
populated regions, transporting pupils at public ex- 
pense and thus forming graded central schools is 
working great improvements. The uplifting of our 
rural schools is becoming a leading educational move- 
ment of our times. 

Rural Schools may be made Efficient. — The pos- 
sibility of making our country schools efficient and 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 219 

progressive is no longer doubted. The stupendous 
difficulties are admitted, but wise organization and 
skilful management may surmount all hindrances. 
The statesman and the philanthropist study to im- 
prove our country schools as the best means of check- 
ing the alarming tendency to overcrowd our cities. 
The educator co-operates in all movements to improve 
our rural schools, because he considers that we thus 
do most to elevate the race. 

Country Schools are necessarily Sui Generis. — Our 
rural schools to be efficient must be unique in organi- 
zation, in management, and in methods. The en- 
vironments demand the creation of a country-school 
system adapted to the conditions. After long years 
of study, observation, experiment, and consultation, 
the following plan is submitted. It is certainly in- 
tensely practical. It seems to embrace the conditions 
of constant progress. It is the faith of the author 
that our rural schools can and will be made efficient. 

We count Rural Schools as Ungraded Schools. — The 
typical country school is ungraded. It has one teach- 
er, and has pupils at all stages of elementary advance- 
ment. The ungraded schools are the least economical 
and the least efficient of all schools, but such schools 
are a necessity. Our study is to make the most of 
these schools. Whenever and wherever possible we 
plan to transform the ungraded into the partly graded 
school with two or more teachers. These partly grad- 
ed schools, in small villages and in densely populated 
neighbourhoods, are a decided educational advance. 
Wherever possible, we plan to transform the partially 
graded into the graded school with a teacher for each 



220 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

grade. The rural central high school may be counted 
as a country school. The high school is now a part 
of the common-school system, and must be made easily 
accessible to all our youths. The central high school 
can at the least do well the work of the first and second 
high-school years, and can thus do incalculable good. 

CouNTKY School Gkounds and Schoolhouses. 

These must be adapted to the conditions. In other 
chapters we have studied school environments and 
school grounds and schoolhouses in general. Here 
we study these things as affecting rural schools. 

1. The Location should he Central^ Beautiful, 
Hygienic. In the country these are important con- 
siderations. The location should be beautiful, and 
this requirement may move the school a little from a 
central position. The location must be healthy, and 
hygienic environments outrank other considerations. 

2. Rural School Grounds should he Commodious. 
Each rural school should have from two to ^yq acres 
consecrated to pupil culture. These grounds must be 
made educative. The natural beauty must be supple- 
mented by art, so as to cultivate taste and react on the 
home. The playgrounds must be so arranged as to 
encourage vigorous plays. The geography grounds 
must present the divisions of land and water. The 
biological grounds must be made helpful in Nature 
study. The rural school grounds should be the most 
delightful of all places in the community. 

3. The Ideal Country Schoolhouse is adapted to 
the Country School. We create our ideal rural school 
and we build around it our ideal country schoolhouse. 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 



221 



It is commodious, for the country pupils must not be 
crowded. It is seated with single adjustable desks, for 
country pupils deserve the best. It is heated by a 
ventilating stove and a small open fireplace situated in 
opposite corners. Almost perfect ventilation is se- 
cured by the large flues, by the skilful management 
of the windows, and by having a recess each hour. 
The two doors and the convenient cloak rooms make 
entrance and exit easy. Storm doors open into closed 
walks leading to the closets, and the pupils visit the 
closets at will. Our ideal country schoolhouse is a 
thing of beauty, and it is every way adapted to the 
ungraded school work. 

Country School Organization. 

Each township shall constitute a school district, 
and the teacher of the central school shall be princi- 
pal of all the schools in the district. This sentence, 
enacted into law and embodied in practice, will revo- 
lutionize our rural school 
work. It will group all 
schools, and will give the 
schools of a district organic 
unity and skilled manage- 
ment. 

1. Groitping Rural 
Schools into Organic Unity 
is Vital. The angels could 
not make our country 
schools efficient on any other plan. In most States 
the municipal township is wisely made the school dis- 
trict. The number of schools in a district is imma- 



School 
No. 5 


School 
No. 4 


School 
No. 3 


School 
No. 6 


School 
No. 1 


School 

n 

No. 3 


School 
No. 7 


School 

1 1 

No. 8 


School 
No. 9 



222 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

terial, but for convenience it is often best to divide a 
township into two or even three districts, and some- 
times it is best to put two townships in one district. 
A school group should be compact, and the central 
school should be easy of access from all parts of tlie 
district. School ISio. 1 is the central school. The 
number of schools in a district, within reasonable 
limits, does not affect the management. 

2. The District School Board imist he Perpetual. 
The legal voters will elect three competent citizens to 
serve one, two, and three years as members of the 
school board. One member of the board will retire, 
and one new member will be elected each year. Thus 
a perpetual school board is secured. The teacher of 
the central school will be ex-officio secretary of the 
board. In school affairs, as in everything else, our 
people initiate all movements and keep the manage- 
ment of affairs in their own hands. The Govern- 
ment helps the people to help themselves. The prin- 
cipal nominates and the board elects the teachers. 
With the approval of the county and the State super- 
intendent, the board may divide the schools of a dis- 
trict into two or three convenient groups, each group 
having a central school and a principal. 

3. The Teacher of the Central School is the Prin- 
cipal of all the Schools in the Group. Only trained 
and experienced teachers are eligible to this position. 
The principal is the vital element in the rural 'school 
organization. The tenure of office for principal and 
tried assistants is during efficiency. The principal 
directs the course of study and is the inspiration of 
the school work of the district. He works with the 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 223 

county superintendent as city principals work with 
the city superintendent. He works with the school 
board to secure and keep a good teacher in each 
school. On alternate Saturdays the principal arranges 
to visit such schools as most need his help, and on 
alternate Saturdays he conducts the meetings of tlie 
teachers. 

4. Teachers spend Alternate Saturdays in Profes- 
sional Work. They meet at the central school and 
the principal conducts the exercises. One hour is 
spent in practical school management, and all the 
teachers plan to help each teacher. One hour is 
spent on methods. The time is devoted to the best 
teaching of a single branch ; each teacher contributes 
something. One hour is devoted to the professional 
study in hand ; a helpful book is studied and dis- 
cussed. One hour at alternate meetings is given to 
helpful work by the county superintendent. On the 
last Saturday of the school month an hour is spent 
with the school board. The principal reads the con- 
solidated report for the month, and each teacher re- 
ceives his salary in cash, not in promises. The board 
and the teachers consult about the needs of the schools 
and the county superintendent makes suggestions. 

6. ^'ach /School has its Director, The board ap- 
points an interested and competent citizen to have 
charge of the school property, to make the improve- 
ments ordered, to supply fuel, and to co-operate with 
the teacher. The director holds his position during 
the pleasure of the board. 

6. The Central School develops into the District 
High School. Usually but two years of high-school 



224: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

work is advisable. The principal takes charge of the 
high school, and an assistant teacher takes charge of 
the elementary work. It is of the utmost importance 
to have these rural high schools accessible to all youths 
in the district who complete the elementary course of 
study. 

T. The Villages are the Natural Centers. Sepa- 
rate school boards for the village school and for the 
surrounding rural schools are uneconomic and unedu- 
cational. In all affairs — school, church, and state — ^it 
is of the utmost importance to get the town and coun- 
try people to work together. Whenever possible the 
village should be designated as the central school. No 
reasonable effort should be spared to break down and 
keep down antagonism. To this end the union of the 
schools will help most. 

8. Flexibility must characterize the Hural School 
Organization. It must be easily adjustable to the con- 
ditions in all sections of the country. The above plan 
is in the highest degree flexible. Everywhere the 
people will group their schools and elect their school 
boards. Each school board will elect a principal, and 
the board and the principal will struggle with the local 
conditions ; working together they will build up and 
conduct the schools. There may be infinite variations, 
but the vital conditions of efficiency are secured. 

KuEAL School Libraries and School Apparatus. 

Some helps are essential in order to secure the 
best results. The school library easily comes first. 
In rural homes the best books are not numerous. 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 225 

The school does most when it develops a taste for the 
best literature and supplies free the best books. 

1. The Principal is Lihr avian. Each teacher is 
an assistant librarian. In the central building a room 
is fitted up for the district library. The county super- 
intendent approves the lists of books to be purchased. 
The library is free to all persons in the district. Juve- 
nile books predominate, but there are suitable books 
for all. The library is rich in the best books for 
teachers. 

2. The School Library continually grows. The 
State makes a small annual appropriation for sustain- 
ing each district libraiy. The school board also ap- 
propriates a small amount annually. A course of lec- 
tures is given annually at the central school and the 
proceeds go to the library. Liberal men and women 
make helpful contributions. 

3. Each School has its Small Working Library. 
These libraries are reported as a part of the district 
library and are in cliarge of the teacher. An un- 
abridged dictionary, a suitable encyclopaedia, and a 
few choice books of reference are the essentials. Be- 
sides these, each teacher has a special working library. 
On alternate Saturdays, while attending the teachers' 
meetings, the teacher procures special books for the 
pupils and for the working library.* 

4. Necessary Apparatus is furnished each School. 
The most helpful things are procured, but nothing is 
purchased without the approval of the principal and 
the county superintendent. Country pupils live close 



* See Chapters VII and IX. 
16 



226 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

to Nature and learn to make things, but some articles 
of apparatus are exceedingly helpful. As with books, 
so with apparatus : our rural youths are entitled to the 
advantages of suitable aids. Only the best helps are 
secured. The teacher is charged with the care of the 
apparatus. 



Advantages and Disadvantages of Kueal Schools. 

1. The Country School may claim some Decided 
Ad'vantages. The pupils live nearer to Nature than 
city pupils, have greater physical vigour, have gained 
better working habits, and are less exposed to vicious 
temptations and to hurtful excitements. The worthy 
country teacher is a closer friend of his pupils and a 
more pervading force in pupil life. As a rule, rural 
pupils are more independent and self-helpful. These 
advantages count for much. Our rural schools, at 
their best, do in eight months the work that city 
schools do in ten months. 

2. The Country School has its Serious Disadvan- 
tages. Irregular attendance, short terms, low salaries, 
incompetent teachers, frequent changes of teachers, op- 
position to improvements, wretched school facilities — 
these are some of the obstacles we must encounter in 
our efforts to improve rural schools. Then, one teacher 
is compelled to instruct the eight grades of pupils in 
all the different branches. As in primitive times the 
farmer was blacksmith and shoemaker and carpenter 
as well as farmer, so the country teacher must do all 
the work divided between the eight teachers of a 
graded school. But most of the disadvantages may 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 227 

be removed or so modified as to work less and less 
injury. Our ungraded country schools are a neces- 
sity. In these schools we instruct fully half of all 
our pupils. To make our country schools the best 
possible is our great educational desideratum. 

Classification in Ungraded Schools. 

1. A Class is a Group of Ptijpils capaUe of work- 
ing together. Age, abilities, and attainments are con- 
sidered in arranging pupils into working groups. The 
vital test is, " Can this pupil work with most profit in 
this class ? " Before deciding, the teacher, as best he 
can, studies the pupil. Yery much depends on the 
decision. Teachers lacking pupil insight, like un- 
skilful physicians, may make fatal blunders. 

2. The Ungraded School sho\dd> he classified in 
view of the Graded School. Our people are continu- 
ally moving from country to town and from tow^n to 
country. We must so organize our schools that these 
changes may not interrupt the work of the pupil. 
Then our ungraded schools tend to become partially 
graded schools, and these gradually grow into fully 
graded schools. The classification of the rural schools 
must facilitate these transitions. 

3. The Four-class Grouping seems hest. The four- 
class plan is believed to be the best possible. It makes 
it easy for the schools as well as for the pupils to pass 
into graded schools ; its school advantages are mani- 
fold. 

The pupils are grouped into four classes, desig- 
nated by the letters A, B, C, D. Each class stands 



228 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

for two years of school work. Class D includes the 
first- and second-grade pupils of the graded school ; 
class C, the third- and fourth-grade pupils ; class B, 
the fifth- and sixth-grade pupils ; class A, the seventh- 
and eighth-grade pupils. As a rule, the country 
pupils in a class are a few months older than the 
city pupils in corresponding grades. /^\. ^^^^ 

tendency, as rural schools improve, /V/^vV ^^ 

toward correspondence in age. ■ <^* x /<^yK°y^ 

4c. The Work of the Un- .J^/\(^€^^ 
ed School is limited to ^^^ /^ X-X<{ / theEle- 
mentary Studies. The a> /^V.V^/ course of 
study, the pro- ^ /\/jf/<ipy gramme, and 
the plans of work ^ /^ /^\ / ^^^ projected in 
view of this .A /^/.^& / limitation. Eural 
schools are X /^/S/ often embarrassed by 

attempt- /^ /^^ / ing advanced work. As 

a rule /d^/'^/ / this should be discouraged. 
The ele- <' /.^/'\/ mentary work should command 
the entire \^^5^^ energies of the teacher. In some 
cases the teach-^^ er is justified in instructing ad- 
vanced pupils before and after regular school hours. 
In very small schools such instruction may safely be 
given during the school hours. It is every way better 
to promote advanced pupils to the central high school. 

Rural School Study Groups. 

System is the condition of efliciency. We select 
the minimum number of the best studies and arrange 
them in co-ordinate groups. Continuous lessons in 
each group are required to prepare the pupils for 



EFFICIENT HURAL SCHOOLS. 229 

complete living, and at the same time prepare tliem 
for advanced school work. 



Q 
m 



1 Co-jnTTPT ( Special conduct lessons. 

feTUDiLS. I Q^^^ j^.j^^i lessons. 

2. Language- ( Reading and spelling, language lessons, 
Literature ■< grammar, composition. 
Studies. ( Child literature, juvenile literature. 



PC O > 3. Science ( Geography, oral biology, hygiene. 

Studies. ( Oral physics, oral astronomy. 



< 



Mathematics j Arithmetic, concrete geometry. 
Studies. \ Introductory algebra, oral bookkeeping. 

Art Studies \ Physical culture, vocal music. 

* \ Penmanship, drawing, manual training. 



The grouping is easy, natural, practical. The 
country teacher studies these groups as a map of his 
work. He asks, " How can I best weave these sub- 
jects into my course of study and my programme 1 " 
The course of study expresses in years the combina- 
tion of the study groups ; the programme expresses 
the same thing in days. Good teaching correlates the 
various studies and unitizes the work. 

Course of Study for Rural Schools. 

1. The Prolonged Study of a Few Subjects is the 
True Plan. — The course of study for rural schools 
must exclude many subjects in order that pupils may 
master a few subjects. We study the Report of the 
Fifteen as a mine of educational wealth, and find its 
matter and its suggestions invaluable. We study the 
country school in its history, in its environments, and 
in its possibilities. In the light of the world's thought 
and experience we study to create a course of study 
adapted to rural schools. 



230 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



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EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 231 

2. The Work is Progressive. — It is apparent that 
each class is kept in touch with the great departments 
of human learning. The same subjects are studied 
throughout the eight years, but each class studies a 
special phase of a subject. The number lessons of 
the D's become the algebra lessons of the A's, and 
the historic stories of the D class become the lessons 
in American and general history of the A class. 
Continuous and progressive work characterizes well- 
arranged school courses. 

3. The Recitation Periods. — School exercises con- 
ducted by the teacher are called recitations. The 
course provides for one daily recitation in each study 
group. Necessarily the language-literature and the 
art groups are given two daily recitation periods. 
Each pupil has seven recitation periods daily. 

4. Length of Recitations. — Efficient work requires 
time. Even in the country school fifteen minutes 
seems to be minimum time for good work. In prac- 
tice we find that in the D and C classes we can do 
reasonably satisfactory work in fifteen minutes; but 
we find it wise to make the recitation time for the B 
and A classes twenty-five minutes. 

The Country-School Pkogramme. 

1. Efficient Work comes of a Good Programme. — The 

difficulties are immense. One teacher must do the 
work of the eight teachers in the graded school. 'No 
wonder that most programmes for ungraded schools 
are crude ! Few teachers profoundly study the con- 
ditions, and so fail to form a good working pro- 
gramme. As a result, the time and the energies of 



232 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

teacher aod pupils are squandered. * Tlie programme 
here submitted is the result of years of thought and 
experience. The author has visited several hundred 
country schools and earnestly studied the rural school 
work in many of our States. 

2. Combined Recitations are a Necessity. — An un- 
graded school has, we will say, forty pupils. The 
classification gives us fifteen D's, eleven C's, eight 
B's, and seven A's. How may one teacher best man- 
age all this class work ? Experience answers, " Make 
judicious combinations." (1) Let the art work in- 
clude as far as possible all the classes. The teacher 
can have all at work at the same time and still adapt 
the work to the classes. (2) Combine the A's and 
B's in most subjects. These classes are always small. 
The reviews and much advanced work may be made 
to suit both classes. While the A's are doing written 
work the B's may have oral work. (3) In the con- 
duct work combine the D's and C's and the B's and 
A's. This combination is especially helpful. Such 
class combinations often more than double the efii- 
ciency of the rural teacher. 

3. There is Immense Gain in Concentration. — The 
entire school concentrate on one study. While the 
D's recite arithmetic all the other classes study arith- 
metic. While the C's recite geography all the other 
pupils study geography. This device is decidedly help- 
ful. The teacher who once tries it will always use it. 
It is the only possible plan that can make it easy for 
the teacher to manage the study classes as well as the 
recitation work. In the programme, blackfaced type 
indicates recitation and common type indicates study. 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 



233 



Suggestive Programme for Ungraded Schools. 



Min. 


Closing 
time. 


Class D. 


Class C. 


Class B. 


Class A. 


10 


9.00 


OP 


ENING EX 


ERCISES. 




15 

15 
25 


9.15 
9.30 
9.55 


Oral arith. or form. 

Oral arith. or form. 
Reading lesson. 


Primary arith. 
Arith. or form. 
Primary arith. 


Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 
Arithmetic. 


10 


10.05 




RECE 


SS. 




15 
15 
25 


10.20 
10.35 
11.00 


Reading, spelling. 

Reading, spelling. 
Seat work. 


Lang. & comp. 
Lang. &comp. 

Lang. & comp. 


Lang. & comp. 
Lang. & comp. 
Lang, & comp. 


Gram. & comp. 
Gram. & comp. 
Gram, & comp. 


10 


11.10 




RECE 


SS. 




15 
15 
25 


11.25 
11.40 
12.05 


Geog. or biology. 

Geog. or biology. 
Seat work or play. 


Geog. or biol. 
G-eog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 


Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 


Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 


30 


12.35 




NOON RE 


CESS. 




15 
25^ 
15 


12.50 
1.15 
1.30 


Music. 
Writing or 

drawing. 
Physical culture. 


Music. 
"Writing or 

drawing. 
Phys. culture. 


Music. 
Writing or 

drawing. 
Phys. culture, 


Music. 
Writing or 

drawing. 
Phys. culture. 


10 


1.40 




RECE 


SS. 




15 
15 
25 


1..55 
2.10 
2.35 


Reading, spelling. 
Reading lesson. 
Seat work. 


Read., spell. 
Read., spell. 

Reading. 


Reading. 
Reading. 
Read, or lit. 


Reading. 
Reading. 
Read, or lit. 


10 


2.45 




RECE 


SS. 




15 
25 


3.00 
3.25 


Conduct lesson. 
Dismiss. 


Cond. lesson. 
Dismiss. 


Cond. or hist. 
Cond. or hist. 


Cond. or hist, 
Cond. or hist. 



234 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

4. The D Class is divided into Sections One and 
Two. — Except in reading, the two sections are com- 
bined. In reading, while the teacher instructs one 
section a pupil from class A instructs the other sec- 
tion ; but the teacher will have both sections daily, as 
the D's have two lessons in reading each day. As the 
lano^uasre lessons and the science lessons are also read- 
ing lessons, the D's are well provided for. 

5. The Hourly Recess is exceedingly Helpful. — It 
helps to secure good ventilation, keeps the pupils fresh 
and happy, and makes control much easier. It enables 
teacher and pupils to accomplish daily at least one 
third more work. For the country school the hourly 
recess is of special educational value. 

6. A Pupil Teacher may render Needed Assistance. 
— In large country schools the best of all devices for 
relieving the overworked teacher is the provision for 
a pupil assistant. Many young teachers wish practice 
under skilful guidance, and will gladly take the place 
of pupil assistant. Many school boards will freely 
provide some compensation. 

Y. Grouping the Studies is an Incalculable Help. — 
The programme articulates the study groups. Such 
a programme is a work of art and pleases like a poem. 
It places each pupil in continuous touch with each of 
the realms of human learning. The practical group- 
ing of the school studies renders the making of school 
programmes a real art. 

The Three-Group Programme. 

Teacher, study carefully the three-group pro- 
gramme. It is full of helpful suggestions. It is sim- 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 235 

pie and comprehensive. It is used with good results 
in various States. Visit good ungraded schools and 
observe the workings of different programmes. Study 
earnestly your own school and create your own pro- 
gramme. The course of study and the programme 
are fundamental in school work. The following sug- 
gestions by Dr. E. E. White will prove of great value 
to you. To prevent confusion, groiijp has been substi- 
tuted for grade in these paragraphs ; the grade pro- 
gramme is for a typical ungraded school. 

1. The programme of class exercises and seat work shown on 
the next page is adapted to a school divided into the three sec- . 
tions or groups. The class exercises are indicated by bold-faced 
type, and the study or seat work by common type. 

2. The programme divides the day session into periods of 
twenty, twenty-five, and thirty minutes each, the spelling drills in 
the two upper grades being considered one period. It also divides 
the teacher's time equitably among the three groups of pupils. In 
the forenoon the A group has three exercises ; the second or B 
group, two exercises ; and the primary or C group, two exercises. 
In the afternoon the A group has three separate exercises (includ- 
ing spelling) ; the B group, two exercises ; and the C group two. 
All three groups have two simultaneous exercises, one in writing 
and language and one in drawing, singing, etc. It is thus seen 
that the A group of pupils has eight exercises each day, the 
B group six exercises, and the C group five ; but it is to be ob- 
served that the A group has two more studies than the B, and the 
B group has one more than the C. The attention given to the 
preparation and direction of the seat work of the pupils in the C 

' group (as explained below) will make the time devoted to this 
group about the same as that devoted to the B group. 

3. A rural school of some thirty pupils would probably have 
two classes in the A group, two in the B group, and three in the' 
C group, making, in all, seven different classes of pupils. The 
time allotted by the programme to a class exercise in the A group 
—in arithmetic, for example— must be divided between the two 
classes (if there be two classes in a group), but not equally from 



236 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 
Whitens Three- Group Programme.^ 



Closing 
Time 


MIN- 
UTES 


Primary (C) 
(grades i.& ii) 


Secondary (B) 

(GRADES III & IV) 


Advanced (A) 

(GRADES T, VI, VII & VIII) 


9:10 


10 


OPENING EXERCISES 


9:35' 


25 


Seat Work* 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


1D:00 


25 


Number 

( On slate or with objects ) 


Arithmetic 


Geography- 


10:25 


25 


Number 


Geography- 


Geography 


1D:45 


20 


Form Work 

(Paper folding, stick laying, 
etc.) 


Geography 


Geography 


10:55 


10 




RECESS 




11:15 


20 


Silent Reading 


Geography 


Grammar 


11:35 


20 


Beading and 
Spelling' 


Form Work 

(Map drawing, sand molding, 
etc.) 


Grammar 


12:00 


25 


Excused from School 


Reading 


Grammar 






NOON INTERMISSION 


1:10 


10 


n 


n 


>A 


1:30 


20 


Form Work 

(Clay modeling, paper cutting, 
etc.) 


Eeading 


Reading 


1:50 


20 


Silent Reading 


Seat Work* 


Eeading 


2.10 


20 


Reading and 
Spelling 


Animal or Plant 
Study 


U. S. History or 
Phy.siology 


2:40 


30 


"Writing 2 
or Language^ 


"Writing- 
or Language^ 


Writing 2 
or Language* 


2:50 


10 


RECESS 


3:10 


20 


Number 
(On slate or with oTyects) 


Spelling 


TJ. S. History or 
Physiology 


3:35 


25 


Drawing^ Singing^ 
or Moral Instruc- 
tion J 


Drawing^ Singing^ 
or MorJil Instruc- 
tion.^ 


Drawing^ Singing^ 
or Moral Instruc- 
tion.^ 


3:50 


15 


Excused from School 


Spelling 


.Spelling 


4:00 


10 




Arithmetic 


Spelling 



* As may be provided for by the teacher. 

t White's School Manag;ement, p. 90, American Book Company. Is in- 
serted by permission of the author and the pubUsher. 

Notes. — The small figures at right indicate the number of lessons a 
week. 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 237 

day to day, as much depends on the nature of the lessons. One 
day the upper class may have only ten minutes and the lower class 
fifteen, and the next day this may be reversed. What the pro- 
gramme requires is that the two exercises do not together exceed 
the time assigned to the group. 

4. The primary group presents the most difSculties, since it 
usually contains more classes than the upper groups ; but the 
classes are small and the lessons are short, and very effective work 
can be done with three small primary classes in from twenty to 
twenty-five minutes. The teacher will need to take a few minutes 
before school to prepare seat work for them, and a minute or two 
may now and then be taken from the time of the upper grades to 
start them in such work. Some capable pupil may often be as- 
signed to assist primary pupils. If neither history nor physiology 
is a regular branch of study, one more daily period may be as- 
signed to the primary classes, and the same may be done if neither 
drawing nor music is regularly taught. 

5. The inexperienced teacher may not see how three groups of 
pupils may be taught simultaneously in drawing, or writing, or 
language, each grade having its appropriate lesson, as provided 
for in the programme, but experience has solved this difficulty. 

The Rukal School Faculty. 

The isolated school and the isolated teacher be- 
long in the past. In our time schools are grouped, 
and teachers are organized into faculties. '* Country 
school faculty ! " Yes, my friend, the colleges must not 
have all the good things. A group of rural teachers 
working together as a unit, by extending the meaning 
of the term a little, may properly be called a rural 
school faculty. 

1. The princijyal is a specialist in rural school 
work. He is the professional adviser of the school 
board and the right arm of the county superintendent. 
He gives unity and intelligent direction to the school 
work of the district. Above all, he unites the teachers 



238 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

into a working faculty, and thus unitizes tlie school 
work of the district. 

2. The assistant teachers, with the principal, 
constitute the rural school faculty. As a working 
body, they plan and carry on the school work of the 
district. The course of study and the programme 
must leave details to be worked out by the faculty. 

3. The faculty meetings occur on alternate Sat- 
urdays, and are counted a part of the regular school 
work. All enter heartily into these councils. Each 
one gains inspiration and also contributes something 
to help others. These faculty meetings are of the 
highest value ; they will revolutionize the rural schools. 

Partially Graded Country Schools. 

Partially Graded Schools. — The ungraded school is 
the crudest and least economical form of school or- 
ganization. Whenever and wherever possible the un- 
graded school must be evolved into the partially 
graded school. At first we have a principal and one 
assistant. The principal takes the A and B classes, 
the four intermediate grades, and the assistant takes 
the C and D classes, the four primary grades. The 
schools are now designated as the primary and the in- 
termediate. Experience demonstrates a large gain by 
this partial grading. Each teacher added multiplies 
the gains. The transformations must be so adjusted 
as to give each teacher as nearly as possible an equal 
number of pupils. Often the principal must take into 
his room a lower class in order to equalize the work. 

At best the graded organization is defective, but 
it is doubtless the highest form admissible in country 



EFFICIENT RURAL SCHOOLS. 239 

schools and primary schools. The most rudimentary 
form of the graded school is doubly as efficient as the 
ungraded school. Ultimately some way will be found 
to largely transform the ungraded into graded schools. 
Massachusetts for some years, by furnishing free trans- 
portation, has given the country pupils the same ad- 
vantages as the city pupils. The children within a 
radius of four and a half miles are transported in 
wagons to and from central schools. The result is so 
satisfactory that comparatively few ungraded schools 
are now to be found in the State. Other States are 
moving in the same way, and doubtless each State will 
devise some plan to make its rural schools better and 

better. 

The Rueal High School. 

The District Central School evolves into the District 
High School. — This development comes naturally from 
conditions, and is the crown and summit of rural school 
organization ; it brings within the reach of all our 
youths high-school instruction. Country youths do not 
mind travelling on bicycle, horse, or mule even six and 
seven miles to attend a good high school. At present 
only three pupils out of a hundred enter our high 
schools. Place the high school within easy reach of 
every home, and we may safely hope to see within a 
decade at least twenty-five per cent of our youths enter 
the high school. The gain every way will be mar- 
vellous. The district principal becomes also the high- 
school principal, and his assistant takes the elementary 
pupils. In these schools two years of high-school 
work may be done to the immense advantage of rural 
youths and at the minimum cost. 



210 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Methods of Work in Country Schools. 

1. The Best for Each Pupil must he planned. 
No pupil, even in ungraded schools, must be kept 
back or pushed forward to his hurt. As the verj 
best practical device to secure efficiency, the pupils 
are placed in four classes, and each class is divided 
into sections one and two. Teachers must keep in 
mind that section one is a year in advance of section 
two. In some studies the sections can work together 
profitably ; in other studies, such as arithmetic, the 
sections must be given different work. To keep the 
advanced pupils marhing time^ or to drive the least 
advanced pupils to despair^ is ruinous. To keep each 
pupil doing continuously his best is extremely diffi- 
cult, but it must be done. In some cases a pupil 
assistant is the best solution. Some teachers get good 
results through alternate recitations. The most satis- 
factory device, as a rule, is the combined recitation ; 
the sections are given alternately oral and written 
work. 

2. There must l>e More Study and Less Teaching. 
This is simply a necessity in ungraded schools. 
The pupil must be educated to work out his own sal- 
vation. Sturdy independence and self-helpfulness are 
peculiar products of the rural school. Pupils are 
trained to find out for themselves. The conditions 
are such that the pupils must depend largely on their 
own efforts, but the teacher continually suggests, 
guides, inspires, instructs. 

3. There must he More Text-hooh Work and Less 
Oral Teaching. The recitation periods are necessarily 



KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 241 

shorter, and the pupils must do more home study. The 
one teacher can not possibly do extended oral work 
in all the subjects; but the pupils are from one to 
two years older than in the corresponding classes of 
the graded school, and the rural industries in which 
the pupils engage and their closer associations with 
Nature, help to render more good bookwork possi- 
ble. The teacher, it is true, supplements the book 
and shows the pupil how to gain knowledge from 
IS'ature and from books, but he is compelled to limit 
extended oral work to a few subjects. The school 
library is of the greatest value in the country school. 
The pupils are trained to find out from books. 



CHAPTEK XXTI. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT KINDERGAR- 
TENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 

Intelligent pupil study characterizes the new 
education. Physiologists, psychologists, and educa- 
tors have taught us to study the child in the light 
of science. Each teacher studies the little ones for 
herself. She lives close to her pupils, and she finds 
that love of children is the divine key to child nature. 
She is able to lead her pupils to mastery through glad 
effort, for she is their wise and loving friend. Her 
work and her methods are based on a knowledge of 
tlie real child. Knowing child activities and child 



242 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS, 

needs and the laws of cliild growth, she wisely adapts 
the matter and the methods to her pupils. God and 
the mothers give the precious children into her hands, 
and lovingly she leads them in the paths of peace. 

The KiNDEEaAETEN AND THE PeIMAEY ScHOOL. 

Play characterizes childhood and is the central 
idea in the kindergarten. Jean Paul thought of play 
as man's first poetry, and the instrument through 
which all his higher possibilities are developed. 
Froebel is counted the great educational reformer 
because he j)lanned to make play educative. In 1816 
he created the embryo kindergarten ; by 1916 the 
kindergarten will have become co-extensive with the 
primary school. 

1. From the Fourth to the Sixth Year is the 
Kindergarten Age. The mothers are God's kinder- 
gartners ; every wise mother studies to make the play 
of her little ones educative, but the child of four 
needs the larger life of the kindergarten. In cities it 
is wise to gather the neglected infants into kinder- 
gartens as early as the third year. 

2. Kindergarten embodies the Philosophy of Edu- 
cation. The wise and kind kindergartner works 
with God and the mothers to make the most of the 
precious infants. The little ones are kept as free and 
as happy as the birds. They are gently led to ex- 
plore, to see, to hear, to taste, to smell, to touch, to 
do. JS^ew and old experiences are assimilated and re- 
membered. Making new combinations educates child 
imagination. As flowers bud and blossom, so the 
kindergarten pupils grow physically, mentall}^, and 



KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 243 

morally. All riglit habits are cherislied. All exer- 
cises increase strength because they are proportioned 
to the strength of the pupils. The growth is sym- 
metrical because all the native activities are wisely 
exercised. 

3. A Warm Motlierlij Heart is the Kindergart- 
ners Divine Commission. Culture is essential. 
Profound child study is a sine qua non. Good schol- 
arship and at least two years of professional work 
under the training of skilled kindergartners is indis- 
pensable. The kindergartner is an artist of the 
highest rank, and requires even more preparation for 
her work than the musician or the painter or the 
sculptor. Her skill awakens all that is lovely in the 
immortal child. 

4. We are Rich in Kindergarten Literature. 
Froebel's Education of Man easily heads the list; 
then Miss Blow's Symbolic Education and her songs 
and music of Froebel's Mother Plays ; Hailman's 
Kindergarten Manual and Primary Helps ; Froebel's 
Pedagogics of the Kindergarten, by Miss Jarvis ; and 
the current kindergarten literature. 

5. Semi-kindergarten Work characterizes the First 
Primary Grade. The transition from the home or 
kindergarten to the school is made in this grade. Semi- 
kindergarten work renders the transition natural and 
helpful. The child is now six years old and may 
profitably, after a few weeks, begin to use books, but 
the kindergarten spirit is dominant. The children 
are still largely educated through play, and are led to 
experience everything possible. The teacher is too 
sensible to use many of the gifts and plays devised 



24:4 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

for the yoiinger pupils. The infant is now a child 
and must be given child work. The play impulse is 
strong, but the plays are different. The pupils feel 
free and happy, but they learn to work orderly. The 
semi-kindergarten has been a gradual growth. The 
most gifted teachers have been selected for this grade 
at advanced salaries. Thus it has come about that 
the old first grade primary has been imperceptibly 
transformed into the semi-kindergarten, to the incal- 
culable advantage of the pupils. 

The Primary Schoolhoijse and Primary Helps. 

Nothing is too Good for the Child. — Froebel taught 
his embryo kindergarten in a hovel without a floor or 
a door or a stove. To-day the kindergarten home is 
a child palace, full of delights. The old schoolhouse 
was repulsive and bare, and the work corresponded. 
'No wonder parents had to force their children to go 
to school ! In our times the primary school with its 
surroundings and its furnishings is a thing of beauty, 
and the primary pupils are the happiest of mortals. 

1. We must 'build ou7' Ideal Primary School- 
house around our Ideal Primary, School. The typ- 
ical primary building has four rooms — one room for 
each grade. Some schools have eight primary rooms, 
and a teacher for each primary class. Large primary 
schools are not desirable. It is better to have four- 
room buildings near the homes of the pupils. Mass- 
ing young children is an educational mistake. 

2. Primary Buildings should he Hygienic. The 
lighting and heating and ventilating should be as 
nearly as possible perfect. The physical-culture hall 



KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 245 

sliould be ideal ; it sliould be so placed as to be con- 
venient for both the primary and intermediate. In 
detached primary buildings wide halls answer for 
gymnastic purposes. 

3. A Primary Schoolroom must he fitted up for 
Primary School Work. The kindergarten realizes 
our ideal, and so should the primary schoolroom. 
The single adjustable desks are educative as well as 
hygienic. The table for moulding and weighing and 
measuring is indispensable. Suitable apparatus is 
more needed in the primary than in any other school. 
The primary room should be a picture gallery. 

4. The Primary Library should he the Best. In 
each primary room is a revolving bookcase contain- 
ing a hundred child books adapted to the grade. The 
primary faculty select the books and plan for their 
use. We are becoming so rich in primary literature 
that we are embarrassed in selecting the best. 

The Peimary Faculty. 

1. The Primary Faculty is an Organic Educa- 
tional Unit. A primary school is complete in itself. 
Its principal and her assistants constitute the primary 
faculty. The principal is the unitizing element. She 
conducts the faculty lessons in child study and in 
primary methods. All members of the primary fac- 
ulty are famihar with the work done by each ; all 
work as a unit in promoting child growth. The 
primary tenure of office for tried teachers is during 
efficient work. 

2. The Primary Principal is a Specialist in 
Primary Work. For this reason she is made prin- 



246 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

cipal. Slie is cliarged with the primary control and 
the primary teaching. Besides teaching the fourth 
grade, she inspires her assistants and unitizes the en- 
tire primary work. She keeps the primary school in 
touch with the kindergarten on the one hand, and 
with the intermediate on the other. She so manages 
that the primary work is enriched by the visits of the 
intermediate specialists. In all cases she works in har- 
mony with the intermediate principal. 

3. Each Primary Assistant is a Prhnary Spe- 
cialist. Each one is elected because she is a gifted 
and trained primary teacher. The educational world 
has come to demand the best ability and the highest 
skill in the primary school, and salaries have been in- 
creased to correspond with this demand. Each teacher 
works in complete harmony with the principal. 

4. The Primary Worh is unitized. The princi- 
pal and her assistants at their weekly meetings study 
systematically the primary work. Two choice books 
each year are studied and discussed. The work of 
each grade is studied and its relations to the work of 
other grades, and its programme are carefully consid- 
ered. To teach the best things in the best ways is the 
ideal. But unity of work is the desideratum. The 
child mind is a unit, and the child world must be a unit. 
Tlie great study of the teachers is to lead the children 
to assimilate their acquisitions into their lives and 
thus into unity. Number lessons are blended with 
the language lessons and with the Nature lessons. 
All lessons supplement and re-enforce each lesson, just 
as in the mental economy all the native activities of 
self supplement and re-enforce each activity. The 



KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 217 



work of each teacher harmonizes with the work of all 
the teachers. The primary work is an organic unit. 
The tremendous importance of correlation and con- 
centration is beginning to be realized. 

Organization c>f the Peimaey School. 

1. The Priinary School is Sui Generis. It is the 
pleasant school home of childhood. The pupils re- 
quire personal help. School evolution carries up into 
the graded primary school the best in individualism, 
the best in classification and gradation, but wisely 
stops short of specialization. The primary is strictly 
a graded and classified school, and this is the highest 
stage of its educative development. Specialization 
hurts and does not help the primai'y school. 

2. The Plan of the Primary School y^\ is ex- 
tremely Simple. The pupil is a child Xy \ from 

ral- 
to 



the grade, 
the ad 
the 
are di 




its sixth to its tenth year. JSTatu- 
ly we group the children in- 
four grades, correspond- 
to the four primary 
The pupils in a 
divided into two 
B includes 



mg 
years, 
grade are 
classes : class 
the beginners in 
and class A includes 
vanced pupils in 
grade. The pupils in a class 
vided into sections, and these 
are m- \/^'4'/^ dicated as B^, B^, and A^, Al 
The step \^ between grades is one school year ; 
the step between classes is half a school year ; the step 
between sections is one fourth of a school year. 



248 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Where the school year is divided into four terms the 
above plan is considered best. Where the school year 
is divided into three terms it is doubtless better to 
divide the pupils in each grade into three classes, B, 
M, and A ; B including the beginners, M the middle 
class, and A the advanced class. The interval between 
classes in schools thus organized is one third of the 
school year. The four-group plan is more flexible, 
and has decided advantages in combining recitations 
and in making promotions. 

3. Pupils are Promoted hy Classes semi-annually 
or quarterly. Promotion by classes occurs at the 
close of each half year ; the B's in a grade become 
the A's, and the A's in a grade become the B's of the 
next grade. Where classes are divided into sections 
with reference to advancement, promotion occurs at 
the close of each quarter. The primary principal, as- 
sisted by the teachers, places each primary pupil in 
the proper grade, and the teacher of a grade places 
her pupils in the proper classes. Fitness to do well- 
advanced work warrants individual and class promo- 
tions. Whenever the teacher becomes satisfied that a 
pupil will be benefited by promotion to a higher class 
the faculty makes the change. In most cases it is found 
best to give bright pupils additional work, and thus 
have them advance with their classes. The teacher of 
the grade makes all promotions within her grade, but 
the primary faculty makes all promotions to advanced 
grades on the recommendation of the teacher. The 
intermediate principal, on the recommendation of the 
primary principal, promotes individuals and classes 
from the primary to the intermediate school. 



KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 249 

4. Lidividioal Teaching is a Desideratum in 
Primary Organisation. Forty pupils may be con- 
sidered the limit of efficiency. This limit gives the 
primary class of twenty and the section of ten pupils. 
With a group of ten, the teacher is able to treat each 
pupil as an individual, and combine the best individ- 
ual with the best class work. 



CoiJESE OF Study for Pkimakt Schools. 

Lines of work are indicated, but details are neces- 
sarily left to the insight and skill and inspiration of 
the teachers. Mechanical routine and slavish lesson 
hearing are utterly out of place in all schools, but 
more especially in the primary school. At the best 
and at the worst, detailed courses of study for the pri- 
mary grades must be taken as suggestive ; primary 
faculties must work out the applications. 

1. The Primary Study Groups outline the Primary 
Work. — The studies are the same, but the work is 
limited to the child phase of the studies. 



o 

m 

< 
I— ( 



r Conduct Group of ( ^^^.^^j government, how to 

Studies ) ^^^^^^• 

( Conduct lessons, oral history. 

Language-Literature j Reading, language lessons. 
Group of Studies. | Child literature, composition. 

Science Group of ( ^'^^ geography, primary geog- 

Studies ] ^^P^J-- 

( Oral biology, oral hygiene. 

Mathematics Group j ^^^^ arithmetic, primary arith- 
of Studies. ) ^^ metic. 

( Form lessons. 

Art Group of ( Writing, drawing, vocal music 

Studies j -^^"^^^^ training, physical cul- 

f ture. 



250 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Course of Study for Primary Schools. 



I 

Grade. 


Conduct. 

Language- 
literature, 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 


Conduct lessons, study habits, historic 

stories. 
Reading, language lessons, child literature, 

composition. 
Oral geography, oral biology. 
Oral arithmetic, form lessons. 
Writing, drawing, vocal music, physical 

culture, manual training. 


II 

Grade. 


Conduct. 
Language- 
literature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 


Conduct lessons, historic stories. 

Reading, language lessons, child literature, 

composition. 
Oral geography, oral biology, oral hygiene. 
Oral arithmetic, form lesson. 
Writing, drawing, vocal music, physical 

culture, manual training. 


Ill 
Grade. 


Conduct. 

Language- 
literature. 
Science. 

Mathematics. 
Art. 


Conduct lessons, study, oral history, oral 
civics. 

Reading, language lessons, composition, 
child literature. 

Primary geography, oral biology, oral hy- 
giene, oral physics. 

Primary arithmetic, form lessons. 

Writing, drawing, manual training, music, 
physical culture. 


IV 

Grade. 


Conduct. 

Language- 
literature. 
Science. 

Mathematics. 

Art. 


Conduct lessons, study, oral history, oral 
civics. 

Reading, language lessons, composition, 
child literature. 

Primary geography, oral biology, oral hy- 
giene, oral physics. 

Primary arithmetic, form lessons. 

Writing, drawing, manual training, music, 
physical culture. 



These co-ordinate groups give in perspective the 
primary work, and furnish a basis for the course of 
study and the programmes. 

2. The Primary Course of Study is Simple and Flex- 
ible. — It must never be stereotyped. Its purpose is 
suggestive. Its aim is to secure well-planned work 



KINDERGARTENS AND PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 251 

by keeping the pnpils in touch with the great depart- 
ments of human learning. 

It is the true pohcj to leave each primary faculty 
free to work out their specific courses of study and con- 
struct their own programmes. The general course of 
study leaves unlimited scope for invention and bet- 
terment. 

3. Primary Progr amines must be adapted to the 
Grades. — The ablest educators will scarcely venture to 
submit even suggestive primary programmes. This 
work must always be left to the primary faculty. 
Variety , brevity, efficiency, are the essentials. Effi- 
ciency means the mastery of a few things, and health- 
ful and vigorous growth. Class periods vary from 
fifteen to twenty minutes. The no-recess experiment 
proved a signal failure. The policy of having a re- 
cess of ten minutes each hour for the primary grades 
is thoroughly sound. "Where buildings are properly 
arranged, hourly recesses help to secure good ventila- 
tion and wonderfully help to keep the pupils fresh 
and happy. Frequent recesses make the control much 
easier. Well-managed recreations increase efficiency. 

4. Primary Programmes must not be fixed. — The 
ideal primary-school programme is exceedingly flex- 
ible and so adaptable. The programme is made for 
the pupils ; the principal and her assistants are al- 
ways ready to make desirable changes. A suggestive 
programme for a primary grade is submitted more 
to indicate a plan for creating artistic primary 
programmes than for actual primary work ; it is 
safe to leave the making as well as the adjusting of 
the programmes in the hands of the primary teach- 



252 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Suggestive Programme for Primary Schools. 

GRADE IV. 



s 


Closing 
time. 


CLASS B. 


CLASS A. 


H 


B^ 


B2. 


AK 


A2. 


10 


9.10 





PENING 


EX E R C I S E 


S. 


15 
15 
15 
15 


9.25 

9.40 

9.55 

10.10 


Reading. 

Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 


Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 


Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading, 
Reading. 


Reading, 
Reading. 
Reading. 
Reading. 


10 


10.20 




EEC 


ESS. 




20 
15 
15 


10.40 
10.55 
11.10 


Writ, or draw. 
Phys. culture. 
Vocal music. 


Writ, or draw. 
Phys. culture. 
Vocal music. 


Writ, or draw. 
Phys. culture. 
Vocal music. 


Writ, or draw. 
Phys. culture. 
Vocal music. 


10 


11.20 




REC 


ESS. 




20 
20 


11.40 
12.00 


Geog-. or biol. 

Geog. or biol. 


Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 


Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 


Geog. or biol. 
Geog. or biol. 


30 


12.30 




NOON R 


ECESS. 




15 
15 
15 
15 


12.45 
1.00 
1.15 
1.30 


Arith.orform. 

Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 


Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 


Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 


Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith. or form. 
Arith.orform. 


10 


1.40 




REC 


ESS. 




20 
20 


2.00 
2.20 


Lang, or lit. 
Lang, or lit. 


Lang, or lit. 
Lang, or lit. 


Lang, or lit. 
Lang, or lit. 


Lang, or lit. 
Lang, or lit. 


10 


2.30 




REC 


ESS. 




20 
20 


2.50 
3.10 


Cond. or hist. 
Cond. or hist. 


Cond. or hist. 
Cond. or hist. 


Cond. or hist. 
Cond. or hist. 


Cond. or hist. 
Cond. or hist. 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 253 

ers. Superintendents and intermediate principals will 
do well to confine themselves to general suggestions. 
The ideal primary school, like the kindergarten, is 
nniqiie and complete in itself. Its faculty plans and 
executes. 



CHAPTEE XXIII. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THEOUGH COEEELATED AND 
SPECIALIZED INTEEMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 

Pupil Growth is Continuous. — There is no break in 
the educational highway. The child, as yvwell as the 
man, perceives, thinks, creates ideals, //^^Nv loves, 
acts. The kindergarten pupil pur- / Xo^/ .^^v sues 
the same subjects as the college / /^ / .-^ A>/st\i- 
dent. The human constitu- //V/ '^\/y tion, 
the laws of human devel- /^^\< o<^ /^opment, 
and human environments /^sv /^V ^^^^ unity 
to a human life. /w\ / ♦* /^/ 

1. Educational AV />< Ay Periods. The 
stages of human ///'/^^// growth are well 
defined. As //^/^'^/W ^^^ I'^^e passes 
through //:^/^^y(/ phases of development 
fromsav- //^^/^^/0^ ^ge^J to enlightenment, 
so the \/ y^^yOy pupil passes through similar 
stages of x^ ^"^/^y growth. The elemental activi- 
ties are the ^\y same from infancy to age, but as 
the years go by the feeble activities of the child be- 
come the mighty activities of the man. The differ- 
ence between the child Newton puzzUng over his first 



254 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

easy problems and the pliilosoplier l^ewton solving 
tlie problems of the universe is a thing of growth. 
The same subjects, it is true, are studied, but the 
phases of the subjects, as well as the methods of work, 
vary as the pupils advance. 

2. Each Grou^ of Schools is Unique. Each stands 
for a stage of pupil development. The kindergar- 
ten stands for infancy ; it utilizes play, familiarizes 
spoken and pictured symbols, and adapts matter and 
methods to the little ones. The primary stands for 
childhood ; it makes close connection with the kinder- 
garten, utilizes written symbols, and adapts the matter 
and the methods to the children. The intermediate 
stands for boyhood and girlhood ; it makes close con- 
nection with the primary, utilizes the restless activities 
of the intermediate pupils, and adapts the matter and 
the methods to girls and boys. The high school stands 
for youth ; it makes close connection with the inter- 
mediate, utilizes exploration and investigation, and 
adapts the matter and the methods to youths. The col- 
lege stands for young manhood and young womanhood ; 
it makes close connection with the high school, utilizes 
research, and adapts the matter and the methods to 
young men and women. 

3. School Evolution has had its Stages of De- 
velopment. Individualism characterized the crudest 
form of school work. The ancient schoolmaster in- 
structed his pupils one by one. This was the first 
stage of school growth. Classification characterized 
the second stage of school evolution. The teacher 
discovered in the class a most helpful device for pu- 
pil betterment. The new education then wisely com- 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 255 

bined individualism and classification. Grading char- 
acterized the third stage of school evolution. Teachers 
discovered the incalculable value of division of labour 
in school work. Each teacher instructed a grade of 
pupils in all the subjects. The new education then 
wisely combined individualism, classification, and grad- 
ing. Specialization characterizes the fourth stage of 
school evolution. A teacher devotes himself completely 
to a single group of school studies, and so he becomes 
an educational artist. The new education wisely com- 
bines individualism, classification, grading, and spe- 
cialization in the ideal intermediate school work. 

The Ideal Intermediate School. 

1. The Specialized Intermediate comtnends itself. 
Our old grammar schools with all their defects are ac- 
complishing great things, but they are nowhere satis- 
factory. We study educational problems in view of 
future possibilities. What will the intermediate be in 
a half century ? Viewed from this standpoint, we are 
more apt to see in its true perspective the specialized 
intermediate school of the future. The spirit of edu- 
cational progress will certainly compel the early trans- 
formation of our grammar schools. The comparative 
crudeness of their organization and management, and 
their monstrous waste of pupil and teacher energy, 
is becoming evident even to the most conservative. 
The specialized intermediate school, it is believed, 
will give almost perfect organization and manage- 
ment, will economize energy to the utmost, and will 
give the highest efiiiciency. It will embody the world's 
best educational thought and experience. 



256 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. The Intermediate Stage of Pupil Growth is 
Unique. We think of pupils from their tenth to 
their fourteenth year as girls and boys. Marvellous 
physical activity characterizes this stage of growth. 
The great activity of sense-perception and the burn- 
ing desire to find out, make of each pupil a keen ex- 
plorer. The ready memory and the astonishing imi- 
tative power make this peculiarly the habit-forming 
period. The activity of the social emotions leads to 
the formation of beautiful friendships, mostly between 
girls and girls and boys and boys. Happy the teacher 
who wins the hearts of the boys and girls ! 

3. The Teacher must undeT stand the Girl and the 
Boy. The self is not now a child nor a youth, but 
a girl, a boy. This is the intermediate stage of de- 
velopment coming between childhood and youth. 
The school for boys and girls is an intermediate school, 
not a grammMr school. We study earnestly this stage 
of growth that we may promote the physical well- 
l)eing of the intermediate pupils. We study intently 
this stage of intellectual growth that we may wisely 
adapt the matter and the methods to the boys and 
girls, and foster healthy and vigorous mental growth. 
We study with absorbing interest girls and boys as 
emotional beings that we may stimulate all ennobling 
impulses and repress all hurtful feelings. We care- 
fully study this stage of will growth that we may lead 
our pupils to develop self-control and form desirable 
habits. 

4. The Intermediate must he adaj^ted to Girls and 
Boys. The intermediate is not an advanced primary 
or a lower high school ; it is sui generis and unique. 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 25T 

Everything is planned and executed from the stand- 
point of the intermediate pupiL We live close to the 
boys and girls and learn to understand them. What 
is best for our pupils during this trying stage of 
growth? The school building, the course of study, 
the programme, the management and the methods of 
work, are all planned to promote the best interest of 
the real girls and boys. 

5. Intermediate Sjpecialization characterizes the 
Ideal Intermediate. Specialization is the key to effi- 
ciency as well as progress. In education as in practi- 
cal life, the best results are secured by carrying division 
of labour to its legitimate and helpful limits. The 
kindergarten and the higher education are splendid 
object lessons, showing the tremendous advantages of 
wise specialization. The departmental experiment in 
our grammar-school work was predoomed because it 
thought of the grammar school as a lower college. 
^Nevertheless, these crude experiments demonstrated 
the advantages of specialization and of the division 
of labour in the intermediate school. Intermediate 
specialization must be unique, for it must be adapted 
to boys and girls. It must unitize as well as special- 
ize ; must co-ordinate as well as separate ; must con- 
centrate as well as correlate. 

Buildings and Equipments for the Specialized 
Intermediate. 

1. School Buildings must he planned for School 

Work. The transformation of our grammar schools 

will require a radical change in the construction and 

equipment of our school buildings. Every school 

18 



258 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

building sliould be planned from the standpoint of 
the school. The school architect literallj builds the 
schoolhouse around the school. When our present 
school buildings were planned we thought of the 
grammar school as merely an advanced primary 
school. The intermediate school of the future will 
necessitate new intermediate schoolhouses and new 
equipments. Like all advances, this will work hard- 
ships ; but the change from the old to the new need 
not be made hastily. It is a work of time to prepare 
an army of specialists, and prepare the world for this 
grand forward movement. Some old buildings may 
be changed so as to meet the new conditions. As new 
buildings are needed we can realize in these our ideal 
intermediate schoolhouses. 

2. The Special School-Btoilding System. Three 
well-marked stages in modern school architecture 
interest educators. The union school system, one 
large study room with small recitation rooms open- 
ing out of it, was the crude and cruel pioneer. The 
pupils of all grades were massed in the study hall, 
and governed by the boss principal. The massing 
system, though the worst possible, led up to grading. 
The grade system, initiated by Superintendent J. 
D. Philbrick, of Boston, in 1848, was one of the 
greatest of all inventions by the way of school build- 
ings. The twelve-room school building was consid- 
ered ideal ; each teacher now governed and taught 
one grade. This beneficent system soon became gen- 
eral, and is still the basis of our graded school work. 
But the world's educational progress during half a 
century makes it clear (1) that each group of schools 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 259 

must be sui generis; (2) that the faculty of each 
school must be a teaching unit; (3) that ideal school 
buildings must be built around ideal schools. The 
special school-hidldhig system is a growth. The high 
school was the first group of schools to outgrow 
the grade system. Everywhere we are now build- 
ing ideal high-school buildings around ideal high 
schools. In the fitness of things the grade system 
will persist in our primary schools, but the ideal pri- 
mary schoolhouse must be built around the ideal pri- 
mary school. It is becoming evident that our gram- 
mar schools, like our high schools, are outgrowing 
the grade system, and must soon be transformed to 
meet the new conditions. We must create our ideal 
intermediate school, and construct around it an ideal 
intermediate-school building. We may, as yet, not 
even venture to suggest plans, but the essentials are 
becoming clear. The ideal intermediate building must 
be every way adapted for specialized intermediate 
work. 1. The conduct room must be constructed and 
fitted up for conduct teaching. 2. The language-lit- 
erature room must be fitted up for teaching language 
and literature. 3. The science room must be fitted 
up for teaching intermediate science. 4. The mathe- 
matics room must be fitted up for teaching interme- 
diate mathematics. 5. The art room must be fitted 
up for teaching the intermediate-school arts. The 
special school-building system will embody the best 
in the world's experience and will give us buildings 
adapted to the graded primary school, to the special- 
ized intermediate school, to the specialized depart- 
ment high school, and to the department college. 



260 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Intermediate Faculty. 

The meaning of tlie word faculty is enlarged to 
include any group of special teachers. Each inter- 
mediate teacher is a specialist, and all the teachers of 
an intermediate school, working as a unit, constitute 
an intermediate faculty. 

1. The Princij)al is a Conchcct Specialist. For 
this reason he is made principal. The principal, 
first of all, is a specialist in school management. To 
him it is a delight to govern up to self-government 
and control up to self-control. Corporal punishment 
and percentage marks and prizes are not thought of ; 
good conduct is secured through ennobling motives. 
The girls and boys are led through high incentives to 
conduct themselves properly, to study diligently, and 
to become womanly and manly. The work of the 
principal re-enforces the work of the other teachers. 
He is the unitizing element in the faculty. 

2. Each memher of the faculty is an intermediate 
specialist in one group of studies. Eelieved from the 
incubus of government and from the distraction of 
trying to teach the entire course, each intermediate 
teacher devotes his entire energies to teaching a special 
group of related subjects. As each teacher has the 
same pupils for four years, he makes them his friends, 
studies them one by one, and adapts the matter and the 
methods to each individual. Teaching becomes a de- 
light, and teachers are transformed from drudges into 
enthusiastic artists. They grow with the years, become 
women and men of marked culture, keep fresh and vig- 
orous and sweet, and at sixty are still counted efiScient. 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 261 

3. The intermediate faculty is composed of about 
an equal number of male and female teachers. All 
positions are open to prepared teachers, regardless of 
sex. The educational gain is incalculable. It is be- 
lieved that fitness will give a majority of the interme- 
diate principalships to female teachers, but the dan- 
gerous tendency of the old grammar school to practi- 
cally confine the education of our boys and girls to 
female teachers, will be obviated. 

The Intermediate Course of Study. 

1. The transformed intermediate school will 
necessitate a transformed course of study. It is m- 
finitely important that the matter and the methods 
should be the best possible, for from the intermediate 
schools the great body of our pupils go out into life. 
The old grammar school squanders fully half the en- 
ergies of teachers and pupils. A wise economy through 
speciahzation will enable the new intermediate school 
to do vastly more work and vastly better work. 

2. Pwpil Good is the Ultimatum. All the work 
must be work adapted to girls and boys. Either pri- 
mary or high school work during this period produces 
arrested growth. The intermediate work must be the 
best possible to prepare the pupils for complete Hving. 
The intermediate work must be the best to prepare the 
pupils for the high-school work and for life. What 
work is the best for the pupils ? We must begin by 
sweeping away rubbish— work that hurts and does not 
help. From the rich realms of knowledge we must 
select the subjects and the phases of the subjects which 
experience has shown to be most helpful. 



262 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

3. The Intermediate Study Groups outline the In- 
termediate Work. The five co-ordinate groups give 
us in one viev7 the intermediate work in terms of sub- 
ject-matter. The outline specializes and unitizes the 
intermediate work and maps out the specific work of 
each teacher. 

p n , ( Conduct lessons, how to study, school discipline, 
tonduct J Q^,^Y biographical history, American history, 
btudies. ^ Civics, religion, mind lessons. 

J ( Reading, expression. 

Ijanguage- j Language lessons, grammar, composition. 

Liiterature < Juvenile literature, what to read, how to read, 

btuclies. y Latin or German or French begun. 

^ , . ( Arithmetic, introductory algebra. 

Matnematics J Concrete geometry, oral trigonometry, 
btudies. ( Oral bookkeeping. 

Q • ( Geography, oral astronomy. 

Sps 1 ^^^1 ^^o\6gj, oral hygiene, 
btudies. j Q^^^ physics. 

Art j Physical culture, manual training. 

Studies. { Penmanship, drawing, vocal music. 

4. The Programme Course of Study presents the 
subjects in their time relations. The grading and 
classification of our grammar schools are eminently 
satisfactory. The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
grades of our graded schools are the intermediate 
grades. Each grade embraces two classes, the b's 
(the beginners) and the a^s (the advanced pupils). "We 
designate the classes in a grade by the letters a and b, 
and the grade by the exponents of these letters. For 
convenience we here use the small letters. Thus, b® 
and a^ denote respectively the beginners and the ad- 
vanced pupils of the fifth grade. The step between 
classes is half a school year. 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 263 



The Intermediate Programme Course of Study. 



Grades. 



Grade 

V, 

Classes 

a^ b^, 

V year 



Study groups. 



Conduct. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 



Subjects. 



Grade 

VI, 

Classes 

a«b«, 

VI 
year. 



Oral general history, how to study, conduct 

lessons, oral civics. 
Reading, language lessons, composition, 

literature. 
Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 
Arithmetic, concrete geometry. 
Physical culture, writing, drawing, music, 

manual training. 



Recita- 
tion 
periods. 



Daily lessons, 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly. 



Grade 

VII, 

Classes 

a^ b^, 

VII 

year. 



Conduct. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 



Oral general history, how to study, conduct 

lessons, oral civics. 
Reading, language lessons, composition, 

literature. 
Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 
Arithmetic, concrete geometry. 
Physical culture, writing, drawing, music, 

manual training. 



10 

5 
5 

10 



35 



Daily lessons, 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly. 



Conduct. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 

Art. 



Oral general history, American history, con- 
duct lessons, civics, mind lessons. 

Literature, grammar, composition, Latin 
begun, or German or French. 

Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 

Arithmetic, introductory algebra, concrete 
geometry. 

Physical culture, drawing, music, manual 
training. 



Daily lessons, 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly. 



Grade 
VIII, 

Classes 

a8 b8, 

VIII 

year. 



Conduct. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 

Art. 



Oral general history, American history, con- 
duct lessons, civics. 

Literature, grammar, composition, Latin, 
German or French. 

Geography, oral biology, oral physics. 

Arithmetic, introductory algebra, oral ge- 
ometry, oral trigonometry. 

Physical culture, drawing, music, manual 
training. 



5 

10 

5 

5 

10 

35 



10 

5 
5 

10 



35 



Daily lessons, 4 prepared and 3 oral ; total weekly. 



10 

5 
5 

10 



35 



264: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

5. Pupils are promoted hy classes at the middle 
and at the close of the school year. Individual pupils 
are promoted whenever the intermediate school faculty 
consider promotion desirable. As each teacher has 
each pupil daily for four years, great pliability is 
secured and the wants of individuals may be met. 
The teachers in their weekly meetings determine spe- 
cial promotions. Fitness is the consideration. As a 
rule, bright pupils are given additional work and are 
advanced with their grades, but no pupil is kept back 
to his hurt. 

General Pkogeamme foe Specialized 
Intermediate Schools. 

1. The General Intermediate Programm^e sched- 
ules the Recitation and Study Periods, Each teacher 
works out a specific programme, giving his work in 
detail.^ The faculty agree on the general programme, 
and the principal approves the special programmes. 
The recitation periods are uniformly thirty minutes. 
The programme provides in all ten daily recitation 
periods ; each pupil studies during three periods and 
recites during seven. All pupils prepare one or two 
lessons at home, and all are led to read juvenile liter- 
ature at home at least one hour daily. 

2. For Four Years each Pupil spends One Daily 
Recitation Period with each Teacher. This is count- 
ed as one of the beneficent features of the specialized 
intermediate, and will, it is believed, double the edu- 
cative value of the present grammar-school work. One 

* See Part VI. 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 265 

of the world's foremost educators says : " One of the 
most dreadful things I can think of is that a pupil 
should have the same teacher ior four years ^ I shud- 
der to think of it. The pupil gets all that is educa- 

SuggesHve Programme for Specialized Intermediate Schools. 



CLOSING 




CONDUCT 


LITERATURE 
LANGUAGE 


MATHE- 
MATICS 


SCIENCE 


ART 


TIME 


Study 


Recite 


Q.OO 


10 




OPENl 


NG EXERCISES 








9.30 


30 


)b%%\b^ 




8 
a 


7 

a 


a"' 


5 
a 


10.00 


30 


'5678 

a, a, a, a, a 




b^ 


J 


b'^ 


b« 


.10.10 


10 


RECESS 


J0.40 


30 


tU.^' 




6 

a 


5 
a 


a! 


8 

a 


11.20 


30 


5 C 7 8 

a,a,a,a 




b° 


b' 


b^ 


b^ 


11.30 


10 


RECESS 


12.00 


30 






a b 


8 

a 


h' 


5 5 6 6 

a,b,a,b 


12.30 


30 






a b 


a« 


b° 


7,7 8.8 

a,b,a,b 


1.00 


30 


NOON RECESS -LUNCH 


1.30 


30 


I^] 


5 ,5 

a b 


a b 


b° 


G 

a 




2.00 


30 


aS^ 


a b 


6,6 

a b 


b« 






2.10 


10 


HECESS 


2.40 


30 


6,6 

a b 


8,8 

a b 


a b 




8 

a 


a b 


S/.O 


30 


8,8 

a b 


6 6 
a b 


/b^ 






a b 



tive out of a new teacher's personality in less than a 
year ; gets used to her peculiarities, and gets to know 
her methods of study and discipline. The pupil re- 
ceives a sort of impress which, if kept up for four 
years, will endure for life. The result is arrested 
development. After six months or a year the im- 
pression becomes negative to the real growth of the 
pupil." And we all shudder and quake at the thought 



266 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

of dooming our children to spend six hours a day for 
four dreary years under the average overworked grade 
teacher. But we count the girls and boys fortunate 
who are privileged, for four precious years, to work 
a golden half hour daily with each of five earnest, 
cultured, growing specialists. 

3. An unlimited number of excellent programmes 
are possible. The hourly recess and the alternations 
of easy and difficult studies will secure good work 
during each period. 

4. All MovetJieiits occur as signalled hy the 
ProgTamme Clock. The electric bells regulate all 
movements, and teacher energy is devoted strictly to 
educative work. The device for having the pro- 
gramme clock, by means of electric bells, call and dis- 
miss school and call and dismiss all classes, is proving 
an immense help in school work. 

The Specialized Intermediate School at AYokk. 

1. The Faculty is an Organic Unit. Division of 
work and specialization are carried to their helpful 
limits, but there is also complete unity. The faculty 
are an organic teaching unit. All the teachers under- 
stand and keep in touch with the work of each teacher ; 
each one supplements and re-enforces the work of all. 
Each lesson is given in view of all lessons. The pupil 
is led to assimilate into unity all his acquisitions. The 
pupil world is a growing organic unit. 

2. Each Member of the Faculty is a Friend of 
each Pujoil. For four years each teacher, each day, 
instructs each pupil. Each pupil is thought of as a 
friend, and the best individual work is combined with 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 267 

the best class work. Each teacher earnestly works 
for the good of each pupil. 

3. Interest^ Duty : all High Incentives are made 
Vital. Such antiquated educational blunders as the 

rod terror, the marking terror, the examination ter- 
ror, the nonpromotion terror, and the reporting ter- 
ror are not thought of. Each teacher is an educator, 
and bends all his energies to the promotion of pupil 
good. The pupil gets in love with the work, and 
gets to delight in manly conduct and in masterly 
effort. 

4. The Principal is the Centralizing Force, He 
is a specialist in conduct culture and in the art of con- 
trol. He so conducts the opening exercises as to in- 
terest the pupils and inspire all good impulses. He 
so manages the school discipline as to develop habits 
of law-abiding self-control. He so directs the study 
work as to teach pupils to find out and master things 
for themselves. The conduct lessons lead to higher 
ideals and better habits. The oral lessons in general 
history impress the best things in the lives of individ- 
uals and nations. History and literature are the great 
conduct studies. Civics is so presented as to help 
prepare for good citizenship. Easy mind lessons lead 
to experimental self-knowledge. 

5. The Language-Literature Teacher is a Special- 
ist in Language and Literature. This group of stud- 
ies, next to conduct, is the most important study 
group. The pupils are taught how to read and what 
to read. The taste for choice literature is cultivated, 
and each pupil is led to spend one or two hours daily 
in reading the best juvenile books. The pupils learn 



268 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

to speak and write correctly and well. The room is 
fitted lip with the best helps for teaching language 
and literature. 

6. The Science Teacher is a Specialist in the In- 
termediate Sciences. She skilfully leads her pupils 
to find out for themselves. Geography, the science 
of man's environments, is the leading subject of this 
group. Biology blends naturally with geography. 
Practical lessons in physiology and hygiene are made 
a part of the work in biology. Easy oral lessons in 
physics and astronomy complete the work in the inter- 
mediate science group. The science room is fitted up 
with the best helps in science teaching. 

T. The Mathematics Teacher is a Specialist in 
Mathematics. During four years each pupil devotes 
one study and one recitation period daily to the math- 
ematics studies. Mental and written arithmetic are 
so taught as to develop power and become practically 
helpful. The weekly lesson in concrete geometry is 
made of great value. Arithmetic almost impercep- 
tibly becomes algebra. Pupils are led to use arith- 
metic in easy oral bookkeeping. The teacher studies 
to make the mathematic lessons a unit with the les- 
sons in the other study groups. The mathematics 
room is fitted up with the best helps for teaching these 
studies. 

8. The Art Teacher is a Specialist in the Interme- 
diate School Arts. Physical culture, writing, draw- 
ing, vocal music, and manual training make up the 
art group. In the kindergarten and the primary 
school the pupils have made considerable progress in 
these arts. Boys and girls must be given more ad- 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 269 

vanced work. The art room and the art work em- 
phasize grace and beauty as well as unity. This room 
is liberally supplied with helps for teaching the inter- 
mediate school arts. 

9. The Intermediate Work is thoroughly Corre- 
lated and Projportioned. " Grade teachers unduly 
press their favourite studies. Will not the danger 
of inequality be still greater in the specialized inter- 
mediate ? "Will not the strong teachers absorb pupil 
energies % Will not a " hustler " get the pupils to de- 
vote nine tenths of their energies to science \ " This 
is a real danger, but there is safety in the interme- 
diate faculty for both the unspecialized grammar 
school and the specialized intermediate. Each inter- 
mediate specialist is familiar with all the intermediate 
studies. At the weekly meetings the interrelation of 
studies is discussed. The psychology of boyhood and 
girlhood is made a special study. Plans for securing 
the best work in each group of studies in each of the 
eight intermediate classes are considered with great 
care. The vital feature of the new intermediate, how 
to make the work of all the specialists supplement 
and re-enforce the work of each, is profoundly consid- 
ered. At the beginning of each month each special- 
ist prepares an outline of his work for the month, 
and furnishes a copy to each of his cospecialists. 
This enables each member of the faculty to work in 
the light of the work done by each. Though a spe- 
cialist, each intermediate teacher becomes broad and 
liberal. All come to see good in the work of eacli. 
No one even desires to unduly press his special work. 
The entire work is proportioned and unitized. 



270 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Some of the Benefits of specializing the 
Intekmediate Work. 

At what stage of pupil growth should specializa- 
tion begin ? 'No one even thinks of primary special- 
ization except in art. High-school specialization is 
now an accomplished fact, and no educator calls in 
question the astonishing advantages resulting. Many 
are now asking, " Is it well to specialize the interme- 
diate work ? " IsTaturally, the educational world in our 
times gives a negative response. The Committee of 
Fifteen assures us that up to the seventh grade it is 
better, on the whole, to have each teacher instruct her 
pupils in all the branches that they study. Col. F. W. 
Parker insists that concentration is utterly opposed to 
specialization. These utterances voice the present po- 
sition of our most progressive educators. Still, the 
author ventures to plead for the re-examination of the 
question and for the test of actual trial. Child study 
has made the kindergarten and the new primary pos- 
sible and popular. The earnest study of boyhood and 
girlhood, it is believed, will make the ideal specialized, 
intermediate, possible, and universal. Let us put the 
experiment to the test. We can afford to wait a dec- 
ade or two while the experiment is being tried, and 
while intermediate specialization is passing through 
the stages of ridicule and discussion and adoption. 

1. Nothing is lost hy I7iter7nediate Sjpecialization. 
All that is best in the old is retained in the new. The 
change comes as a growth ; it is the natural evolution 
of the classified and graded primary school into the 
classified, graded, and specialized intermediate school. 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 271 

As progressive educators here and there establish spe- 
ciahzed intermediate schools, and as the great advan- 
tages of specialization come to be realized, the new 
school buildings will be planned in view of intermedi- 
ate specialization, gifted teachers will thoroughly pre- 
pare themselves to teach special groups of closely re- 
lated subjects, and our old graded grammar schools 
will gradually be transformed into the new specialized 
intermediate schools. 

2. Even the Financial Gain will he Large, In the 
graded grammar school forty pupils to the teacher is 
the limit of efficiency. In the specialized intermedi- 
ate, division of work enables the teachers to do vastly 
better work with sixty pupils to the teacher. Even 
when the salaries shall be so advanced as to com- 
mand gifted specialists the financial gain will be con- 
siderable. 

3. Specialization will give us Male as well as Fe- 
male Intermediate Teachers. The educational gain by 
having an equal number of male and female teachers in 
our intermediate work is simply incalculable. At the 
beginning of the nineteenth century more than ninety 
per cent of all our teachers were men ; at its close, 
nearly ninety per cent are women. Our kindergar- 
ten and primary teachers are women ; it is well. But 
in all schools above the primary about half the 
teachers should be men ; all educators so teach ; the 
specialized intermediate will certainly tend to secure 
this boon for our intermediate schools. 

4. Specialization looks to Individual Aptitudes. 
The special teachers are quick to discover the mental 
trends of the boys and girls. Gifts are wisely cher- 



272 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ished, and each pupil is led to do his best along the 
lines of his inherited tendencies. Each teacher has 
the same pupils for four years, and leads them on 
without a break during this period. Each pupil is 
treated as an individual and as a friend. The best in 
the class plan and the best in the individual plan 
are combined. The fearful waste occasioned 'by the 
annual change from teacher to teacher is avoided. 
The educational gain is immense. 

5. Specialization will give tis Professional Inter- 
mediate Teachers. Division of work easily quadruples 
the efficiency of the teacher. Relieved of the incubus 
of discipline and of the killing drudgery of attempting 
to prepare and teach all the lessons in all the studies, 
each teacher becomes a master workman in one group 
of studies. These specialists become professional 
teachers and hold their positions during efficient 
work. Intermediate specialization will triple the 
army of professional teachers, and will give impetus 
to our educational work. 

6. The Specialized Intermediate will greatly ad- 
vance Physical Ctdture. The art teacher first of all 
devotes herself to the art of hygienic living. For four 
years she leads the pupils to root hygienic laws into 
hygienic habits. In this she has the earnest co-opera- 
tion of all the other teachers. Physical culture is no 
longer incidental, but is made a special and leading 
study. 1^0 one now questions the great gain of hav- 
ing a specialist to teach music, drawing, and manual 
training. 

7. Specialization will do most to promote Moral 
Education. The intermediate principal is a specialist 



SPECIALIZED INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 273 

in tlie art of character growtli. His group of studies 
look to character building. For four years he leads 
his pupils up to higher ideals and higher realizations. 
In conduct culture each teacher supplements and re- 
enforces the work of the principal. Here we have 
the superlative of the new education. Conduct cul- 
ture ceases to be merely incidental, and takes its place 
as the leading work of the school. 

8. Specialization will benefit Intermediate Pu- 
pils. It is a safe estimate that a day in a specialized 
intermediate will help the pupil more than two days 
in the old grammar school. Skilled specialists stinm- 
late and guide effort, and each room is fitted for the 
best work in a special group of studies. Pupils be- 
come vastly better prepared to go out into life as well 
as for high-school work. The tendency undoubtedly 
will be to keep the boys as well as the girls in school 
until they complete the course ; and it is a reasonable 
estimate that the number who will go up higher will 
be quadrupled. 

The grade grammar school has worked out satis- 
factorily the problems of organization and promotion. 
The specialized intermediate school is a higher evolu- 
tion, and is destined to solve the problems of efficient 
intermediate-school work. It is believed that all the 
objections to this advance that have been urged or can 
be urged will disappear in view of the immense gains. 



19 



274 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



CHAPTEK XXIY. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH SPECIALIZED AND 
CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 

Schools connecting the elementary schools and the 
colleges are called secondary schools. These schools 
are known as high schools, academies, seminaries, and 
preparatory schools. In this country the high school 
is the public secondary school. Our fathers were con- 
tent with elementary education, but in our times the 
masses find the secondary education a necessity. 
Trained minds are demanded by our civilization in 
all fields of human activity. The high school is now 
an essential part of the common-school system. 

The High School prepares for Life. — Youth is emi- 
nently the seedtime of life. The high school gives 
the culture, gives the knowledge, and gives the in- 
spiration that make for complete living. Invincible 
youth learns the art of mastery. The high school 
prepares the youth reasonably well for the practical 
life of our times. We do not, it is true, train high- 
school pupils for special vocations ; but we do develop 
the strongest individuality, honesty, truthfulness, jus- 
tice, generosity, attentive intelligence, thoughtful hab- 
its of industry, and persevering power of application ; 
and this training is the best possible preparation for 
practical life. 

The High School prepares for College. — In all arenas 
of high endeavour, and in all fields of high achieve- 
ment, a college education conditions the highest sue- 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 275 

cess. More and more, in all the walks of life, our 
youth realize tlie importance of preparing themselves 
for college. The high school is the natural link con- 
necting the elementary schools and the colleges. It 
has heretofore been the missing link in our educa- 
tional systems. In the future the great body of col- 
lege students will come up from our high schools ; 
hence our colleges must be adjusted to our high 
schools. We study to make our elementary schools 
the best possible for the elementary pupils, and adjust 
the high school to the elementary school ; we study to 
make the high school the best possible for the high- 
school pupils, and adjust the college to the high school ; 
we study to make the college the best possible for the 
college students, and adjust the university professional 
schools to the college. Thus we create the educa- 
tional highway leading from the nursery to the uni- 
versity. We build on the rock. 

The High School is the Latest to develop. — The 
centuries first of all gave the world the college and 
much later the elementary school. The present great 
forward educational movement is to make the special- 
ized and correlated high school coextensive with the 
elementary school. The high school is now an ac- 
complished fact in our towns and cities. By placing 
well-conducted high schools within the easy reach of 
all our youths we will do most for the elevation of 
the race. The central schools in our rural districts 
under wise management will naturally grow into dis- 
trict high schools, and thus a high-school education 
within the reach of all homes will be made possible 
and inviting. 



276 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

The High School is Sui generis. — To conduct high 
schools as higher grammar schools or lower colleges 
is a fundamental mistake, leading to arrested develop- 
ment and driving our boys prematurely into active 
life. The elementary school adjusts the world to the 
pupil, the . high-school pupil adjusts himself to the 
world, but the college student adjusts the world to 
himself. We use all devices to help the feeble begin- 
ners to grasp the elements of knowledge ; we lead 
the vigorous youth on to mastery ; we inspire the 
strong college student to achieve. The high school is 
for youth. In its facilities, its organization, its work 
and its methods it must be adapted to youth. The 
specialized and correlated high school is unique. 

Youth is a Marvellous Stage of Development. — The 
high-school teacher studies with boundless interest 
this period of human growth. About the fourteenth 
year there comes the stupendous change from boy- 
hood and girlhood to youth. There is almost a leap 
in both the physical and mental life. The emotions 
become tempestuous, and the youth seems impelled by 
mighty subjective energies. Lofty aspirations and 
irrepressible yearnings for noble things begin to sway 
the young life. Egoism gives place to altruism. Duty 
impulses become imperative and the religious emo- 
tions are awakened. Will asserts its sovereignty, and 
a youth must do or die. The imitative activity of 
the boy becomes the creative activit}^ of the youth. 
Action is salvation ; inaction means physical, mental, 
and moral death. From the fourteenth to the eight- 
eenth year is peculiarly the formative period in hu- 
man life. During these seething, restless, melancholy 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 277 

years the trend is given that leads to eminence. We 
study to create high schools adapted to youth — schools 
that will utilize the hroad sympathies, the generous 
impulses, the high aspirations, and the boundless en- 
ergies of youth. 

The Evolution of the High School is a Story that in- 
terests all the World. — The high school having passed 
through the stages of individualism, classification, and 
grading, has now reached the stage of specialization. 
Tutorism, college preparatories, academies, seminaries, 
were some of the diversified forms of individualism and 
classification. Grading was hailed as a panacea ; the 
ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades of our city 
schools became the high school. Each grade had its 
teacher, and the high school was merely a higher gram- 
mar school. Arrested development was the inevitable 
result. Some belated high schools are still at this stage 
of evolution. Happily, some educational Edison of 
our own times suggested high-school specialization. 
The best in individuahsm aiid classification and grad- 
ing are carried up into specialization. Our ideal high- 
school teacher is a college graduate, a trained profes- 
sional educator, and a specialist in a group of high-school 
studies. Our ideal high-school faculty is a teaching unit. 
Our ideal high school is specialized and correlated. 
Partial departmental teaching will come as a growth. 

Organization of the High School. 

1. The High-School Building is Unique. We 
create our ideal high school and construct our ideal 
high-school building around it. Each special teacher 
has a room fitted up for his special work. The work- 



278 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ing library and the necessary apparatus are essentials. 
Assistant teachers have their classrooms fitted up for 
special work. Since laboratory methods must more 
and more dominate in high-school work, it is impor- 
tant that our high-school buildings should be planned 
and equipped with this in view. 

2. High-School Organization is Unique. Grades 
evolve into groups capable of working together. The 
specialized intermediate work grows into the special- 
ized high-school work, and the specialized high-school 
work grows into the specialized college work. But 
the high-school work is unique and requires a unique 
organism. It is a ruinous mistake to think of the 
high school as a lower college or a higher intermedi- 
ate. "We study youth and create schools adapted to 
this stage of education. 

3. The High School considers Years. The group- 
ing is easy. Pupils who are doing the first, second, 
third, and fourth years' work are grouped as D's, C's, 
B's, and A's. The sections of these groups are desig- 
nated as DS J)\ D^; Q\ C\ C\ etc. This is all. 
However small or however large the high school may 
be, this simple scheme answers every purpose. Grades 
are for the elementary schools, and all such epithets 
as freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior are left to 
the college. The high-school pupil is doing the first 
year's work, and is a D ; or the second year's work, 
and is a C ; or the third year's work, and is a B ; or 
the fourth year's work, and is an A. 

4. The Larger High Schools have Two Gradttating 
Classes annually. The pupils that become A's at 
the first of the year graduate at the middle of the year, 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 279 

but pupils that become A's at the middle of the year 
graduate at the middle of the succeeding year. Our 
smaller high schools can have but one graduating class 
annually, and so must give the pupils who complete 
the intermediate work at the middle of the year a 
half-year's vacation before admitting them. 

5. High-School Pupils advance with their Classes. 
When his work is satisfactory a pupil is promoted 
with his class. Individuals found well prepared for 
advanced work are promoted at once by the faculty. As 
a rule, it is best to give bright pupils collateral work 
and so have them advance with their classes. Here 
and everywhere preparedness to work with the next 
group is the condition of promotion. 

6. High-School Work is prescribed. The college 
student under guidance elects his studies, but the 
high-school pupil pursues the prescribed studies. This 
limitation is wise, for immature youths are not prepared 
to elect judiciously, nor can our smaller high schools 
afford to sustain elective courses. Our larger high 
schools offer four courses, but the studies are substan- 
tially the same in all the groups except in that of lan- 
guage and literature. Our smaller high schools can 
sustain but one course. The faculty, however, adapts 
the work to the pupils. 

High-School Study Gkoups. 

1. The High School prepares for Life. Prepa- 
ration for complete living is the ultimate educational 
end. The immediate purposes in school work are de- 
velopment of power and acquisition of knowledge. 
The aims of the high schools are to prepare for life 



280 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

and also prepare for college. Studies best calculated 
to develop power and prepare for life should also best 
prepare for college. Most of our high-scliool pupils 
do not go higher, but pass from the high school di- 
rectly into active life. Clearly the work must be 
made the best possible for the many, and at the same 
time best fit the few for college. 

2. Correlation of High-School Studies is Funda- 
mental, Grouping the subjects taught is an incal- 
culable gain, but it is still more important to further 
co-ordinate the entire work so far as this can be done 
naturally and logically. Unrelated knowledge hurts 
and does not help. The legitimate correlation of sub- 
jects is fundamental. The natural and practical group- 
ing of school studies and the wise concentration of 
school work are leading problems of our times. The 
prolonged study of a few subjects is every way better 
than the brief study of many subjects. This educational 
axiom limits selections from each group to the best 
things. Good teaching enriches and broadens the course. 

f School discipline, investigation, re- 
Condnct ] search. 

Group of Studies, j General and special history, civics. 

[ Practical ethics, elementary psychology. 

Language- i Written and oral expression, 
literature •< English language and literature. 

Group of Studies. ( Foreign languages and literatures. 

■yir ,, , . ( Arithmetic, algebra. 

Grou'o o^udies «^°^^^*^T' P^^^^ trigonometry. 
Gioup ot btuaies. I Bookkeeping. 

r Physical geography, oral astronomy. 
Science J Elementary biology, elementary physi- 

Group of Studies. 1 ology. 

[ Elementary physics, oral chemistry. 

Art j Physical culture, manual training. 

t Group of Studies. \ Drawing, vocal music. 



P 
o 

O 

p 

H 
CO 

h3 
O 
O 

m 

I 

w 

o 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 251 

3. The Group Order is thought to he Reasonable. 
Educative value is made the test. What group of 
studies has the highest educative vahie ? 

-^. ,. ^r ^ (1. Culture value. 
Educative Value. ^ ^ Practical value. 

The above group order, it is thought, will bear all 
reasonable tests. We think of the educative work 
in each group of studies. We may consider growth 
from the physical standpoint, and make development 
of brain areas the test. Each study awakens, strength- 
ens, develops special brain areas. The study group 
that exercises the highest and the widest brain areas 
ranks highest. The above group order, it is thought, 
conforms to the brain-area test. School work is made 
the test. The above group order is eminently prac- 
tical, and seems to be the best for school purposes. 
Fellow-teacher, please read carefully once more, as sup- 
plementing this paragraph. Correlation of Studies by 
the Fifteen, and Secondary School Studies by the Ten. 

The High-School Course of Study. 

1. The Study Groups are here expressed in Years. 
The work in each group for each of the four high- 
school years is outlined. The larger high schools, 
with six or more teachers, can sustain more than 
one prescribed course. But, except in foreign lan- 
guages, our well-organized high schools, small as well 
as large, do substantially the same work. 

2. Each of the F'we Study Groups is counted 
of Great Educative Value. The language-literature 
group, however, is given double the recitation time 
of the other periods. English is considered the natu- 



282 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ral equivalent of conduct, of mathematics, of science, 
of art, and the work in foreign languages and litera- 
ture may be made equal to the work in Euglish. 

Course of Study for the Smaller High Schools. 



Years. 


Study groups. 


Subjects. 


Periods. 


I year. 

Classes 


Conduct. 
I^anguage-lit- 

erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 


Practical ethics, general history, civics. 
j Literature, grammar, rhetoric, expression. 
\ Latin or German or French. 
Physical geography, biology. 
Arithmetic, algebra, concrete geometry. 
Physical cultm-e, vocal music, drawing, man- 
ual training. 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

5 


n 

year. 
Classes 
C\ C2. 


Conduct. 
Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 


Practical ethics, general history, civics. 
j Literature, grammar, rhetoric, expression. 
j Latin or German or French. 
Biology, physics, physiology. 
Algebra, geometry, bookkeeping. 
Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
ual training. 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

5 


m 

year, 
Classes 
Bi, B2. 


Conduct. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 
Mathematics. 
Art. 


Elementary psychology, English history, 
civics. 

J Literature, composition, expression. 

\ Latin or German or French. 

Biology, physics, physiology. 

Geometry, bookkeeping. 

Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
ual training. 


5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

5 


rv 

year. 
Classes 
Ai, A2. 


Conduct. 

Language-lit- 
erature. 
Science. 

Mathematics. 
Art. 


Elementary psychology, American history, 
civics. 

j Literature, composition, expression. 

/ Latin or German or French. 

Physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, 
oral astronomy. 

Trigonometry, geometry. 

Physical culture, vocal music, drawing, man- 
ual training. 


5 
5 
5 

5 
5 

5 



3. £^ach /Special Teacher Outlines his WorJc. In 
the general high-school course for the smaller high 
schools details are omitted. It is left to each high- 
school faculty to complete the outline. The require- 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 283 

ments are well defined. The plan of each specialist 
is discussed and approved by the faculty. No study 
group must dominate ; there must be proportion and 
correlation. No study in a group must be made to 
exclude the other studies. 

4. Partial Departmental Teaching. In the larger 
high schools each group teacher becomes the head of 
a department, and with his assistants constitutes a fac- 
ulty group or a department. In the future the legiti- 
mate department teaching will greatly improve the 
high-school work. 

Suggestive Programmes for the Smaller High 

Schools. 

1. The Conditions determine the Real Programme. 
The number of teachers in our smaller high schools 
varies from two to six, and the number of pupils from 
thirty to two hundred and forty. Schools with more 
than six teachers and more than two hundred and 
forty pupils take rank as our larger high schools. 
Each high school adapts its course of study and its 
programme to its conditions. The group teachers are 
the same in all, but in the larger schools each group 
teacher has one or more assistants. The ideal pro- 
gramme for the smaller high schools is submitted as 
, suggestive. The building, the number and advance- 
ment of the pupils, and the number of teachers, must 
determine the actual programme of the school. The 
ideal programme is for an established high school 
having a suitable building, having about two hun- 
dred pupils, and having five teachers. The language- 
literature teacher will need an assistant. 



284 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. The Ideal Programme must he counted as Sug- 
gestive. It is a work of art to create a good school 
programme. Each high-school faculty must necessa- 
rily construct its own programme. The number of 
possible good programmes for a specialized high school 
with five or more teachers is practically unlimited. 
Each pupil has six daily recitations. The work is so 
planned that a pupil will recite daily three prepared 
lessons and have two or three drill recitations. 

3. Each Teacher conducts Seven Recitations daily. 
As each teacher has eight classes, and as we have but 
seven recitation periods, each teacher must have one 
combined recitation, or must manage to have a pupil 
assistant teach one of his classes. 

4. The Recess of Ten Minutes between Glasses is 
of Great Value. The utmost freedom consistent with 
good conduct is desirable during the recesses. Com- 
plete relaxation is encouraged, but each youth studies 
propriety. Each teacher is given one hour a day to 
visit the intermediate classes. Thus the high school 
is kept in close touch with the intermediate work. 

6. Special JProgramTnes are Essential. Each 
teacher has the pupils in his group of studies for four 
3'ears ; he makes his special programme to suit his 
work. These special programmes are submitted to 
the faculty for approval, but each teacher is given 
almost unlimited freedom. A high school is an edu- 
cational unit, and each teacher plans his work in view 
of all the work. 

6. High Schools with Three or Four Teachers make 
Prograinmes to suit Gonditions. In these schools each 
teacher is a specialist in one group and is charged with 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 



285 



work in other groups. The work and the recitation 
periods are the same, but the pupils are arranged in 
four instead of eight groups, and the step between 
tlie classes is a year instead of half a year. The class 
promotions occur at the close and not at the middle 
of the year. The programme is made accordingly. 

Suggestive Programme for a Specialized High School. 



PERIODS 


CONDUCT 


ENGLISH 


LANGUAGE 


MATHEMATICS 


SCIENCE 


ART 


Clos'- Time 


Study 


Recite 




9.40 


40 


D^ D^ 




Al 


Bl 


A2 


B' 


c^c- 


9.50 


10 


RECESS 


10.30 


40 


B^ 


A^A--^ 


ci 


C2 


Dl 


D2 


Bl 


lO.iO 


10 


RECESS 


11.20 


40 


A^A^C' 




B^B^ 


ci 


D^ 


Dl 




11.30 


10 


RECESS 


12.10 


40 


D"- 


B^B- 


a" 


Dl 


c- 


c- 


Al 


12.40 


30 


NOON RECESS 


1.20 


40 


B^ B- 




D - 


Al a2 


C = 


ci 


Dl 


1.30 


10 








RECESS 








2.10 


40 


DlA'-^ 


c^ c- 




B - 


Al 


Bl 


D-' 


2.20 


10 


RECESS 


3.00 


40 


A^C^C- 




D^ 


D" 


Bi B2 




\- 


3.10 


10 


RECESS 


3.50 


40 


B^Cl 


D^D- 


c" 






Al A- 


B- 



Explanations. — 1. The school has five special teach- 
ers and an assistant in literature. Each teacher con- 
ducts seven recitations, thus meeting all the pupils 
daily. Each pupil has six recitations daily, three or 
four prepared lessons and two or three drill lessons. 
2. Forty-minute recitation periods are found most 



286 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

satisfactory in liigh-scliool work. The recess of ten 
minutes between recitations is simply invaluable. 3. 
All movements of the school are regulated by electric 
bells. The electric clock literally calls and dismisses 
all classes. 4. On Saturdays each class spends two 
hours in laboratory or manual training work. 

The High- School Faculty. 

1. The High-School Faculty is an Educative 
Unit. Correlation is vital. The work of each teacher 
is supplemented and re-enforced by the work of all 
the other teachers. At the be2:innin2,- of each month 
each teacher hands his coworkers an outline of his 
proposed work for the month. These outlines are 
examined at the faculty meetings ; they enable each 
teacher to co-ordinate his work with the work of the 
other teachers. Unity is secured. 

2. The Five Specialists direct the Worh. Each 
teacher is a college graduate and a graduate of a school 
of pedagogy. Each has made special preparations 
to teach a special group of studies. Each is elected 
because of his fitness for special work. Each studies 
his own work in view of all the work. Each is a stu- 
dent of pupil nature, and studies to adapt his work to 
his growing pupils. Unity, harmony, and skill are 
secured, 

3. The High-School Principal Unitizes the Facidty 
and the Worh. He is always a professional educator 
and a specialist in the conduct studies. He gives his 
best energies to training his pupils to habits of self- 
control, self-reliance, and efficient work. During the 



CORRELATED HIGH SCHOOLS. 287 

first and second years he uses practical ethics as the 
basis of his conduct lessons, and during the third and 
fourth years these lessons are given in connection 
with elementary psychology. The pupil is led to 
study the individual self and the larger social self. 
History and civics are so studied as to re-enforce the 
conduct lessons and lead up to a life of duty. These 
are made pre-eminently conduct studies. The princi- 
pal plans to co-ordinate the work of all the teachers. 
In a town of ten thousand inhabitants or less the 
high-school principal is supervising principal of all 
the schools. The ideal programme gives him four 
periods daily for teaching and three for supervision. 
Through the primary and intermediate principals he 
directs the work of the primary and intermediate 
schools, and through the visits of his special teachers 
he constantly reaches all the grades. He is, indeed, 
the principal teacher. 

4. The High-School Faculty Meetings are of Vital 
Interest. Each teacher studies the work of all the 
teachers and becomes broad and liberal. The faculty 
discussions and studies are the antidote to the nar- 
rowness of the mere specialist. Advanced pedagog- 
ical studies receive large attention. The high-school 
teacher is a growing educator. 

5. The High-School Work demands Men as loeU 
as Women. The sexes should be equally represented 
in the high-school faculty. The predominance of 
either sex in high-school faculties is considered a 
fundamental educational blunder. The teachers must 
be men as well as women who know life and who can 
deeply interest the pupils in the living present. 



288 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

" High-school education, if the unjust charge were true, that it 
kept youth away from the interests of life and made him insensi- 
ble to its pulsations because it locks him up in the world of the 
past and of scholastic and unreal abstraction, would indeed tend 
to unfit for life and be a failure. The opposite course is the 
one which the high school should pursue with the graduate of the 
elementary school. It should aim at bringing him into the closest 
touch with the highest interests of current life, and to fill him 
with a strong desire for activity in the world of reality. 

" During the years that a pupil is in the high school the saying 
of Terence should apply to him, 'He is a man, and nothing that 
relates to man should be without interest to him.' " — Superin- 
tendent F. Louis Soldan. 



CHAPTEK XXY. 

STUDENT IMPEOVEMENT THROUGH COLLEGE 
IMPROVEMENT. 

The Modern College makes Close Connection with 
the High School. — Most college students in the near 
future will be high-school graduates, and there must 
be no break in the educational highway. The educa- 
tional world is giving its best efforts to the improve- 
ment of elementary and secondary schools so as to best 
prepare youths for life and for college. 

It is believed that early in the twentieth century 
the high-school diploma will condition admission to 
the college, as the elementary-school certificate will 
condition admission to the high school. This plan 
exalts the elementary and the high schools and great- 
ly helps the college. It necessitates the maintenance 
everywhere of specialized and correlated high schools. 



COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 289 

It eliminates the incubus and the burlesque of college 
admission examinations. It unitizes the school and 
the college work. 

The Modern College adapts the Instruction to the 
Students. — The professors are well grounded in prac- 
tical psychology and in the science and art of teaching. 
They realize that knowledge can not be transferred ; 
that knowledge can be taught only by occasioning the 
appropriate activities in the learner's mind. They pro- 
foundly study the new students. They wisely classify 
the freshmen, and adapt the work to each student. 
The antiquated college clings to the old dogma of 
formal discipline, ignores the doctrine of appercep- 
tion and interest, and labours to make each student 
fit its iron bedstead. It hurts as many as it helps, 
and freezes and crushes out half its students by the 
end of the second year. The modern college is doing 
a beneficent work in the sensible management of its 
students during the first and second college years. 

The Modern College Professor is a Teacher. — His pro- 
fessional preparation for teaching has been as thorough 
as that of the physician for the practice of medicine. 
He leads his students in research and investigation. 
He inspires and guides, as well as instructs. He works 
with the students, and is their friend and adviser. 
The antiquated college professor lectures but does not 
teach. He does not know his students. The close 
friendship between the modern college professor and 
his students is revolutionary ; it doubles the value of 
the college course. 

The Modern College Faculty is a Teaching Unit.— 

The professors are broad and liberal. Each is in a de- 
20 



290 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

gree familiar with work done by the other members 
of the faculty, and so works in view of all the work. 
There is proportion and harmony and correlation and 
concentration. In our belated archaic colleges the 
professors are as isolated in their work as they could 
be if working in different planets. A distinguished 
professor in one of these colleges says : " I have taught 
in this college for a third of a century ; during all 
these years not one of my fellow-professors has spent 
an hour in my class room," The transformation of 
these antiquated colleges into modern colleges with real 
faculties of earnest coworkers is certainly one of the 
most beneficent of all college reforms. 

The Modern College believes in Coeducation. — In 
the college work no distinction is made on account of 
sex. A due proportion of the professors are women. 
The students are women and men. The hazing, the 
rushing, and the dissipation of the old-time male col- 
leges is unknown. In college, as in good society, young 
men and young women prove mutually helpful, and 
the young women become more womanly and the 
young men become more manly. By the close of 
the century most male colleges will have opened wide 
their doors to women ; a decade or two later most 
female colleges will have opened their doors to men. 

The Modern College deeply interests the Educator. 
— A marvellous transformation is taking place. De- 
velopment through scholarship takes the place of formal 
discipline. Laboratory work, original research, inves- 
tigation, and the best teaching largely take the place 
of the stupid lecture and the comical quiz. The oc- 
casional lecture is rich in thought and in suggestive- 



COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 291 

ness. The ideal professor studies his students as well 
as his specialty. His class work is helpful, but he does 
most in guiding and inspiring the individual students. 
Like Aristotle and Kant, he is a teacher as well as a 
student. Like Arnold and Agassiz, large hearted and 
broad viewed, he is an educator as well as a peerless 
specialist. 

The Modern College strengthens the High School — 
The high-school graduate without a break enters upon 
the college work. ' The great movement of our times 
is to secure the educative unity of our schools and our 
colleges. The modern college demands of its students 
culture and mental power rather than a prescribed 
amount of knowledge. Four years of good high- 
school work leads to the college. The high-school 
specialists are college graduates, and are thoroughly 
acquainted with the needs of the college as well as the 
needs of the high school. The high-school faculty 
and the college faculty are coworkers. These facul- 
ties study to do most for the pupil and the student. 

Options and Department Work characterize the Mod- 
ern College. — Students, under skilful guidance, select 
their studies. A course occupies three weekly recita- 
tion periods through the school year. The aim is to 
niake all courses of great educative value. Educa- 
tional symmetry requires that each of the five co-ordi- 
nate groups of studies should be represented in tlie 
work of the student through the college j^ears. It is 
a serious blunder to overlook this requirement ; stu- 
dents must select their studies under advisement. Mod- 
ern college faculties work in groups called schools and 
departments. The isolated professor is a thing of the 



292 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

past. Department teaching, the highest stage of 
school evohition, is the crowning feature of modern 
college work. Specialization is correlated, and a 
group of professors become a teaching unit. 

The Smaller Modern Colleges are Invaluable. — Thej 
can give fewer options, but they can do as good work 
as the university. They have some marked advan- 
tages. Students are individuals rather than masses. 
The instruction is given by the professor and not by 
assistants. They create centres of educational life 
of inestimable value. They have vast advantages in 
the development of character. Everywhere the well- 
endowed and efficient smaller college should be fos- 
tered. 

The Modeen Univeksity. 

All teachers feel a deep interest in the modern 
university. It is getting into close touch with the 
schools and with the people through adaptation and 
university extension. Graduate work characterizes 
the university. Its departments of education, of 
medicine, of law, of engineering, etc., are its glory. 
We study with profound interest the revolutionary 
movements now going on in our great universities. 

1. The Undergraduates have Skilled Advisers. 
Students are carefully grouped in small sections, and 
each group has one of the professors as adviser. Our 
largest universities may thus keep in close touch with 
each undergraduate. At no time in life do young 
people more need a wise friend than during the fresh- 
man and sophomore years in the great universities. 
During these precious years in the antiquated colleges 



COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 293 

and universities a large per cent of the students waste 
their energies and drift to the bad. 

2. Physical Culture includes all Students. The 
best gymnasiums are provided, and skilled specialists 
direct the exercises and lead the students in the ways 
of physical vigour. Football and other semibarbar- 
ous games are left to the experts. The modern uni- 
versity plans the physical betterment of all students, 
and not merely the pampering of a team or crew. 

3. The Course System makes Adaptation possible. 
Under the guidance of his adviser each student elects 
the course best for him. Graduation is conditioned 
by culture, and the B. A. and the M. A. degrees are 
conferred on students who satisfactorily complete any 
of the co-ordinate degree courses. The gain over the 
antiquated curriculum and the confusing multiplicity 
of degrees is marvellous. 

4. Early Specialization Helps. During the junior 
and senior years a student may take one course each year 
in his chosen specialty, and these courses count for his 
academic as well as for his professional degree. The 
gain is incalculable. The stimulus is such as to aug- 
ment general culture. Then the student learns to en- 
rich his specialty by all learning. Take the department 
of education ; the student elects teaching. During the 
junior and senior years he takes two professional 
courses. He learns to study and observe and read as 
an educational artist. Two years of graduate work in 
the department of education prepares him for the 
profession of teaching. The same is true of the de- 
partment of law, the department of medicine, and the 
other professional departments. 



29-i SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Co-ordination and Cokkelation of Educational 
Institutions. 

As a fitting summary, a few paragraphs from an 
article in the Popular Science Monthly by Dr. E. H. 
Magill will interest all teachers : 

" The common consensus of thoughtful minds in 
these latter days has been gradually tending more and 
more toward the proper co-ordination and correlation 
of our educational institutions. In a comparatively 
new country like ours it may naturally be supposed 
that, as the need for various grades of these institu- 
tions has arisen, the want has not always been supplied 
with a sufficiently careful consideration of the needs 
of those of other grades, and that, as a result, the gen- 
eral educational interests of the country require some 
readjustment and reorganization. It should be ob- 
served in the beginning that no censure is intended to 
be applied to any institution or class of institutions 
for their present status, as this has resulted from the 
progressive stages of their growth and development, 
and no sudden or violent change is contemplated or 
desired. The general outline here to be presented is 
rather an ideal sj^stem for future realization, toward 
which all may gradually work as their surroundings 
and circumstances may permit. 

" In the three years from the age of three to six, 
with competent trained teachers, the little ones receive 
a training of the hand, the eye, the ear, the voice, and 
the mind that tells powerfully upon all the subsequent 
years of their school and college life ; and the social, 
moral, and unsectarian relie^ious element of their na- 



COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 295 

tnres receives in these early years a most profound 
and lasting impression. 

" We present this co-ordination and correlation of 
our educational institutions as an ideal scheme toward 
which we should ever aspire, but wdiich we can not 
expect to see realized by any sudden or violent 
changes, or, indeed, in full operation within the next 
quarter of a century. But that something analogous 
to that which is here presented will be found feasible 
and practicable, and to harmonize fully with the in- 
tuitions of this free country of ours, and enable us to 
attract students from abroad in great numbers instead 
of sending them, as now, to complete their education 
in Germany, France, or England, we are most thor- 
oughly convinced. 

BETTER SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ORGANIZATION 
AND CONTROL. 

SUGGESTIONS, STUDY HINTS, AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

XX. Correlation of Schools and Courses. — What do you consider 
the central idea in education as a science? Show the organic 
unity of wisely planned school work. Why should all teachers 
learn to view life as a whole 1 Describe the stages of pupil growth 
and the corresponding schools. What studies have the highest 
educative values ? Name the five necessary co-ordinate groups of 
studies. Discuss the inorganic and the organic groups ; the litera- 
ture group ; the language group ; the history group. Name the five 
practical co-ordinate study groups. Do school conditions demand 
this grouping ? Discuss the conduct group ; the language-litera- 
ture group ; the science group ; the mathematics group ; the art 
group. Give some of the grounds for this grouping. Give the 
history of the Report of the Fifteen. Describe the course of study 
for elementary schools planned by the committee. Explain the 
elementary-school period ; the recitation periods ; recitation time ; 



296 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

promotions; few subjects; correlation of studies. Give the his- 
tory of the Report of the Ten. Describe the parallel courses of 
study for secondary schools planned by the committee. Discuss 
the place and work of the college. Give the group place of 
each of the school studies (page 200), and describe its kinder- 
garten phase ; its primary phase ; its intermediate phase ; its high- 
school phase ; its college phase. What do you mean by the cor- 
relation of schools and colleges ? by the correlation of courses of 
study ? by co-ordination ? by concentration ? 

XXI. Efficient Rural Schools. — Why is it so necessary to im- 
prove rural schools f Sketch the history of our country schools. 
What schools are classed as rural schools ? Why must the rural 
school work be sui ge7ieris 1 Describe your ideal country school ; 
country schoolhouse. Why do you consider the organic group- 
ing of the rural schools an educational necessity ? Is the town- 
ship grouping the best f Why should a school group be compact ? 
Why should the school board be perpetual? Why is it vital to 
make the teacher of the central school principal ? Give some rea- 
sons for making village schools the central schools. Why should 
rural-school organization be exceedingly flexible? State your 
plan for creating and managing rural-school libraries. What 
school apparatus is necessary in country schools ? Give some of 
the advantages of rural schools ; some of the disadvantages. De- 
scribe your plan for classifying rural schools. Give some of the 
advantages of the four-group plan. Discuss the rural-school 
study groups ; the rural-school course of study ; the rural-school 
programme. Compare the three-group and the four-group pro- 
grammes. May the teachers of a rural district be organized into 
a faculty f Describe the faculty meetings. Describe the partial- 
ly graded rural school ; the rural high school. Explain the rural- 
school methods. Is it possible to make our rural schools as effi- 
cient as the urban schools ? 

XXII. Kindergarten and Primary Schools. — What is the key to 
child knowledge? Describe the kindergarten period; the kinder- 
garten spirit ; kindergarten literature. Why must the first pri- 
mary grade be semi-kindergarten? Picture your ideal primary 
schoolhouse. Describe the primary faculty. Outline primary 
grading and classification. Give the primary study groups. Give 
some features of the grouped course of study for primary schools. 
Why must details be left to primary faculties? 



COLLEGE IMPROVEMENT. 297 

XXIII. Specialized Intermediate Schools. — Describe the educa- 
tional highway. Discuss stages of pupil growth ; the uniqueness 
of each school group ; stages of school evolution. Examine inter- 
mediate specialization ; the intermediate stage of pupil growth ; 
the adaptation of intermediate work. Describe the ideal interme- 
diate-school building. Discuss the intermediate faculty. Why 
should there be as many male as female teachers ? Discuss the 
intermediate study groups ; the intermediate course of study ; the 
suggestive intermediate programme ; individual promotion ; class 
promotion. Why must details be left to each intermediate facul- 
ty? Picture the specialized intermediate school at work. De- 
scribe the work of each special teacher. Give a few of the reasons 
urged for transforming the old grammar school into the special- 
ized intermediate school. State some of the objections. Why 
should we hasten leisurely ? 

XXIV. Specialized and Correlated High Schools. — What schools 
compose this group? Why should the high school prepare for 
life as well as for college ? State the order in which the school 
groups appeared. Discuss the question, Is the high school sui 
generis "i Describe youth. Discuss the question, Is youth the 
real formative stage of growth? Tell the story of high-school 
evolution. Describe your ideal high-school building ; high-school 
equipments ; high-school organization ; high-school promotion and 
graduation. What are the aims of the high school ? What stud- 
ies are best? Examine the high-school study groups. Discuss 
the questions, Should conduct studies be made a distinct study 
group ? Should language and literature be grouped as the lan- 
guage-literature group of studies ? Has science a higher educa- 
tive value than mathematics? Should the language-literature 
group of studies be given double the time of the other groups ? 
Examine the course of study for the smaller high schools. Why 
must each specialist arrange the details of his work ? Explain the 
suggestive programme. Describe the high-school faculty. Why 
should the principal be the leading teacher? Why should he 
teach the conduct studies ? Why should he be ever a leader and 
never a boss ? Discuss the question, Should the sexes be equal in 
the high-school faculty? 

XXV. College Correlation and Improvement.— Point out the dis- 
tinction between a high school and a college ; between a college 
and a university. Describe the correlation of high-school and 



298 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

college work. Compare the modern and the antiquated college in 
the treatment of the freshman class ; in artistic teaching ; in co- 
education ; in progress ; in giving options ; in strengthening the 
high school. Discuss, Should the smaller colleges be fostered ? 
Why are all men interested in the modern university ? Compare 
the modern and the antiquated university as to student advisers ; 
as to physical culture ; as to courses. Discuss, Should special- 
ization begin with the junior year? Illustrate by the depart- 
ment of education. Give a brief statement of Dr. MagiU's scheme 
of co-ordination and correlation. 



PART YI. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 



CHAPTER XXVI.— Efficient Methods in Conduct Teaching. 

XXVII. — Efficient Methods in Language-Litera- 
ture Teaching. 

XXVllI.— Efficient Methods in Science Teaching. 

XXIX.— Efficient Methods in Mathematics 
Teaching. 

XXX. — Efficient Methods in Art Teaching. 
399 



XVI and 
XVIII. 

Class 
Methods. 



XXVI. 

Conduct 
Methods. 



XXVII. 

Language- 
Literature i 
Methods. 



XXVIII. 

Science 
Methods. 



XXIX. 

Science 
Methods. 



XXX. 

Art 
Methods. 



1. Characteristics of efficient class methods. 

2. Investigation class method. 

3. Helpful class devices. 

4. Oral teaching and book teaching. 

1. Pre-eminent importance of conduct teach- 

ing. 

2. The conduct group of studies. 

3. Efficient methods in special conduct les- 

sons. 

4. Efficient methods in history. 

5. Efficient methods in mind lessons and prac- 

tical religion. 

r 1. Language-literature group of studies. — 
Educative value. 

2. Efficient methods in reading and expres- 
sion. 

3. Efficient methods in literature. 

4. Efficient methods in language. 

t 5. Efficient methods in composition. 

1. Science group of studies. — Educative value. 

2. Efficient methods in geography. 

3. Efficient methods in biology. 

4. Efficient methods in physics. 

1. Mathematics group of studies. — Educative 

value. 

2. Efficient methods in arithmetic. 

3. Efficient methods in concrete geometry. 

4. Efficient methods in oral bookkeeping. 

1. Art group of studies. — Educative value. 

2. Efficient methods in physical culture. 

3. Efficient methods in drawing and writing. 

4. Efficient methods in vocal music. 

5. Efficient methods in manual training. 

300 



PAET SIXTH. 

PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT 
METHODS OF TEACHING. 



CHAPTER XXYL 



EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING, 



Conduct is the greatest thing in education. The 
ideal education elevates conduct culture from a fitful 
incidental training to the highest place in school and 
college work. All studies are, in a sense, conduct 
studies, as all studies are language studies ; but in his- 
tory, rather than in algebra, high ideals and ennobling 
motives are impressed. The studies which lead to self- 
knowledge and to rational doing are pre-eminently con- 
duct studies. All true teachers are, first of all, con- 

TTie Conduct Group of Studies. 



Elementary Schools. 



Special conduct les- 
sons. 
Biographical history. 
Oral civics. 
Oral mind lessons. 
Practical religion. 



Secondary schools. 



Practical ethics. 

Comparative history. 
Elementary civics. 
Elementary psychology. 
Practical religion. 

301 



Colleges. 



Philosophic ethics. 

Philosophic history. 
Philosophic civics. 
Philosophy. 
Practical religion. 



302 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

duct teachers, as all are language teachers ; but the 
teacher of the conduct studies becomes a specialist in 
conduct culture. Promoting good conduct is made 
primary. 

It seems fitting to include in the conduct study 
group, studies of the individual self, the social self, 
and the cosmic self. Self-knowledge and rational 
self -activity characterize the conduct group of studies. 
Intelligent doing develops character. Educative 
methods in teaching the conduct studies are such as 
foster character growth. Education is the develop- 
ment and training that fit pupils for the highest hap- 
piness of which they are capable, and happiness comes 
from loving law-abiding. The conduct studies have 
the highest educative value, for they do most to pre- 
pare pupils for complete living. We marvel at the 
strange neglect of conduct culture in the past, and 
greatly rejoice in the movement to exalt conduct 
teaching. In school and college, one recitation period 
daily must be devoted to the conduct studies. A 
special programme for conduct work will be planned 
by each conduct teacher. All principals of schools 
and presidents of colleges are to be specialists in con- 
duct culture. Teachers in our primary and ungraded 
schools, and in our unspecialized grammar schools, are 
conduct teachers first of all ; they are also language- 
literature teachers, and science teachers, and mathe- 
matics teachers, and art teachers. 

Methods in teaching Special Condijct Lessons. 

The special conduct lessons in the elementary 
school become practical ethics in the high school and 



EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 303 

philosophic ethics in the college. Good conduct 
teaching fosters the growth into character of right 
ethical ideas, ennobling emotions, and generous acts. 

1. School Conduct. Educative school government 
is the best means of practical conduct culture. Law- 
abiding self-control becomes habitual. Pupils learn 
to work silently and orderly. Regularity and prompt- 
itude are school virtues. Gentility and generosity 
become ingrained. All right habits are cherished. 
Pupils learn to correct their own faults. Even pun- 
ishments are made helpful. The teacher thinks of 
school government as the means of promoting charac- 
ter growth. Part III, Educative School Government, 
may be studied as a part of this section. 

2. How to Study. Good school conduct means 
studious habits and eiScient study. Teaching pupils 
how to study, developing a love of study, and train- 
ing to studious habits are cardinal in school work. 
Study is the pupil's business. Self-control becomes 
self-concentration, and conduct becomes studiousness. 
To learn how to learn is more important than the 
knowledge gained. The teacher leads even the little 
ones to find out for themselves. Pupils are trained 
to find out from Nature and also to find out from 
books, ^t is a great thing to teach pupils what to 
study and how to study. Studious habits are even 
more important than learning. As pupils advance 
they learn to investigate, learn to make independent 
research. 

Half the energies of our pupils are squandered 
because we do not teach them how to study. Many 
of our pupils will fail in life because we fail to edu- 



304 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

cate them to succeed. All things are possible to 
pupils who acquire studious habits and learn how to 
do efficient work. Good teaching trains pupils to do 
good studying. Occasionally the teacher and the 
pupils devote the recitation period to studying the 
new lesson ; but we secure the most satisfactory re- 
sults when we devote one weekly recitation period to 
helpful lessons in the art of efficient study. These 
lessons should be continued till the pupil reaches the 
seventh grade. These lessons are of great value to 
teachers as well as pupils. Some wise teacher should 
prepare a practical manual on Teaching Pupils how 
to Study. 

3. Lessons in Morals and Manners. These are 
special conduct lessons. Pupils think of these as con- 
duct lessons rather than lessons in manners and 
morals. When wisely given, these lessons are in- 
tensely interesting and of the highest practical value. 

How often is Best ? — One lesson each week during 
the first six elementary school years has proved most 
profitable. All school work supplements these spe- 
cial lessons, but experience demonstrates the necessity 
for these specific and systematic lessons. The Com- 
mittee of Fifteen mentions that "brief series of les- 
sons in morals and manners should be given each 
year with a view to build up in the mind a theory of 
the conventionalities of polite and pure-minded so- 
ciety." 

What Lessons are most Beneficial ? — Such lessons as 
tend to foster high ideals and good conduct. Inci- 
dents in the lives of great women and men are always 
helpful. Historic events involving morals and man- 



EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 305 

ners are always interesting and uplifting. Here, as 
everywhere, concentration gives the best results. Pa- 
tiently and persistently the teacher leads tlie pupil to 
grow the cardinal virtues into habits. All lessons are 
selected and taught to promote this end. 

What Methods are most Efficient ?— Oral teaching 
is every way the best. Oral lessons should never be- 
come lectures, but more like Socratic dialogues, build- 
ing up systematic knowdedge partly from what is 
already known and partly by new investigation. 
Pupils must be led to give incidents from their own 
experiences and to express their own views. To-day 
the topic written on the board is, The Generous Pu- 
pil. The teacher introduces the lesson by telling a 
striking illustrative story. Pupils tell of generous 
acts which they have witnessed. Why do you like 
generous pupils? Pupils give reasons. "Why will 
you try to be generous from habit ? Pupils are led 
to resolve and tell. Lessons thus taught get into the 
lives of the pupils. 

How may Conduct Lessons be adapted ? — We study 
to adapt the conduct lessons to the stage of growth 
and to the social environments. We study our pupils 
as they live at their homes and connect our lessons 
with their experiences. Eeasoning and sermonizing 
are worse than wasted on the little child. Through 
kindness and environments we lead the little ones to 
form good habits. Through firmness and gentle but 
unvarying restraints we develop a proper respect for 
authority and prevent the formation of bad habits. 
During early childhood conduct lessons are largely 
training lessons. 
21 



306 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

How may Conduct Lessons be correlated? — The 

teacher so plans that the history lesson and the litera- 
ture lesson re-enforce the special conduct lesson. The 
science lessons and the art lessons may be made ex- 
ceedingly helpful in promoting good conduct. Iso- 
lated stories or lessons, however excellent, are waste 
labour. Correlation and concentration condition effi- 
cient teach in o;. 

What Books will help ? — 'No text-book must ever 
be used. Stories, as a rule, must be told and not 
read. Detailed lessons as found in books must be 
used merely as suggestive ; spontaneity must char- 
acterize conduct lessons. Yet books are exceedingly 
helpful in the conduct work, and the working library 
supplements the lessons. For teachers as well as 
pupils we are getting many helpful books for conduct 
teaching. 

Methods in teaching History. 

History is the Great Conduct Study. — Philosoph- 
ically considered, the history studies come as the fifth 
necessary group of studies ; but practical education 
regards history as the central conduct study. History 
is the race teaching by experience. AYe become good 
citizens because every page of history teaches us that 
all good comes through law-abiding. History is the 
story of humane progress. We make progress be- 
cause we work in the light of all the centuries. His- 
tory is the world's great character gallery. We make 
our lives sublime because we live in the presence of 
the mighty past. Historj^ is philosophy teaching by 
example. We become wise and refined and pure be- 



EFFICIENT METHODS IN CONDUCT TEACHING. 307 

cause our race heritage is the true, the beautiful, 
and the good. History is cosmic. We become worthy 
of a place among the immortals because we come to 
think of the Eternal Energy, from whom all things 
proceed, as our loving Father ; because we come to 
feel that all men — all other rational beings are our 
brothers ; and because we get to realize that the uni- 
verse is our everlasting patrimony. 

1. Primary History Methods. The historic sense 
becomes active as early as the seventh year, and chil- 
dren begin to be interested in history lessons. The 
primary teacher studies to give the pupil object les- 
sons in social life. Myths, fairy tales, folklore, bio- 
graphical stories, historic incidents, are made to lead 
up to civics and history proper. Child life is made 
the objective basis of the history lessons. As pupils 
out of their own experience and the assimilated ex- 
perience of others create a geography world, so out 
of their own historic experience and the assimilated 
historic experience of others they create a history 
world. The verity of the history story interests the 
child. The bearing on conduct of adapted history 
lessons is of paramount value. As the pupil's Is'ature 
experiences are fundamental in science teaching, so 
the learner's social experiences must be made the basis 
of history teaching. The home, the school, the Church, 
and the state are the social environments of the child, 
and all true history teaching must be grounded in the 
pupil's actual experience. What we teach, and when 
and how, must come in answer to the child's needs. 
Basing all teaching on the experience of the learner has 
completely changed our methods of teaching history. 



308 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. Intermediate Methods in History. The history 
story, now taking a wider range, touches the larger 
life of the pupil. The intermediate teacher plans a 
course of lessons in general history running through 
the intermediate period. Hebrew history, Grecian 
history, Roman history, and the stories of the nations, 
furnish abundant materials. What lessons will prove 
most helpful ? The course you outline will be your 
answer. You study to co-ordinate your history lessons, 
your literature lessons, and your special conduct les- 
sons. The lessons are always conversational, and never 
degenerate into mere story telling or lectures. The 
lessons are made especially interesting. Biographical 
and historical stories and stories of travel enter into 
the w^arp and the w^oof of these lessons. The pu- 
pils are led to read interesting books in the line 
of the lessons. These history lessons are the most 
fruitful conduct lessons. Before the age of twelve 
history finds its natural expressions in stories, pic- 
tures, plays, and poems, and is at once aesthetic and 
didactic. 

History and literature during the early years seem 
to blend, but about the age of twelve inference begins 
to play an important part, and historic study gets to 
be critical. The pupil begins to make an event give 
an account of itself, begins to ask what occurred ? 
when ? where ? how ? why % A text-book in Ameri- 
can history is studied during the seventh and eighth 
school years, but oral lessons in general history 
supplement the bookwork. There is no hurry, no 
crowding ; the pupils live the historic events over 
again, for they become to them almost as real as the 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 309 

living present. Imagination is the master builder, nor 
does history interest the prosj plodder. As we lead 
each pupil to create his own geography world, so we 
lead each one to create his own history world. 

By means of historic charts and other devices the 
pupil is led to realize the unity of history. The 
blending of the lessons in history and literature and 
geography is most marked during the intermediate 
period. The special teachers in these groups plan 
unity of work. 

3. High-school Methods in History. About the 
age of fifteen historic study becomes more and more 
reflective. Pupils now study the lives of peoples and 
begin the systematic study of comparative history. 
They study both general and special history and learn 
in some degree the art of research. 

By giving two weekly recitation periods to his- 
tory throughout the four high-school years a good 
foundation in historic study may be laid. ISTo at- 
tempt is made to cover all the ground, but the most 
helpful things are carefully studied. The best in the 
lives of the best men and the best peoples somehow 
gets into the lives of the pupils. 

4. College Methods in teaching History. At eight- 
een the student begins in earnest to try to master 
history as a science. Independent research, compara- 
tive history, monographical special studies, critical 
interpretations, are some features of collegiate historic 
work. It is important that the student devote two 
weekly recitation periods throughout the four college 
years to historic studies. Thus will be laid the best 
basis for life work. The philosophy of history, phil- 



310 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

osopliic history, and original historic investigation 
come largely as graduate work. 

5. Helps in teaching History. IIow can we so 
teach history as to develop character? This is a 
vital pedagogical question and will elicit more and 
more attention as tlie decades go by. Germany and 
France and Italy are rich in historic teaching helps. 
England has taught the world how to write historj^ 
but to America belongs the honour of producing ideal 
school histories. Our recent contributions in methods 
of teaching history are highly valuable. First of all 
we have How to study and teach History, by B. A. 
Hinsdale. JSText we have Methods of teaching His- 
tory, by G. Stanley Hall. In his Manual of Methods 
A. H. Garlick makes excellent suggestions. History 
in the Common Schools, by Emily J. Kice, and 
Unity in College Entrance History, by Lucy M. 
Salmon, in Educational Review, September, 1896, 
are counted among the helpful recent contributions. 
The reports of the Committee of Ten and the Com- 
mittee of Fifteen will prove of great value to teach- 
ers of history. 

Methods of teaching Civics. 

By civics is meant education for citizenship. We 
here use civics in a broad sense, so as to include gov- 
ernment, economics, patriotism, international policy — 
lessons that will best prepare pupils for the duties of 
good citizens. In the lower grades history and civics 
are blended ; but in the seventh and eighth grades 
and through the four high-school years one recitation 
period a week should be devoted to civics. In the 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 311 

college, civics becomes political economy and soci- 
ology. 

1. Priinary Methods. Our pupils breathe the 
atmosphere of citizenship. We lead the little ones to 
experience law and government. We begin with the 
family ; here the child experiences the elements of all 
government. The school next enlarges child experi- 
ence. Then community government, and county, and 
State, and nation begin to be experienced as the pu- 
pils advance. These experience lessons in civics are 
impressed in connection with the history lessons and 
literature lessons and the geography lessons. Pupils 
get into their lives the elements of good citizenship 
and patriotism. Even thus early they are led to 
realize that liberty and all good come through law- 
abiding. 

2. Inter'inediate Methods. With the younger pu- 
pils the synthetic process is best, but in the seventh 
and eighth grades the analytic process is used. Pupils 
may now begin with our national government. It is 
thought to be safe to use an easy text-book on civil 
government in the seventh and eighth grades. One 
lesson a week during these years w411 do much to pre- 
pare our pupils for citizenship. 

Methods in teaching Mind Lessons. 

1. Primary Mind Lessons. Self-knowledge is 
most valuable, for it is the basis of rational conduct. 
It seems fitting that easy mind lessons should be given 
in all elementary schools. Pupils stand face to face 
with the mind world just as they do with the matter 
world. What appears to them in the matter world is 



312 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

called physical phenomena, and what appears to them 
in the mind world is called mental phenomena. We 
lead pupils to explore the matter world, and we call 
the work Nature study ; we lead them to explore the 
self-world, and we call the work self-study. Pupils 
experience sensations, and out of their sensations 
make their sense notions ; they experience awareness, 
and out of their conscious experiences make their self- 
ideas. "Mind lessons," says Dr. Miinsterberg, "can 
not come too early." The pupil sees, hears, touches ; 
attends, desires, acts ; remembers, dreams, imagines ; 
perceives, conceives, infers ; hopes, loves, enjoys. We 
lead the pupil through his own conscious acts to be- 
come acquainted with himself. These lessons are at 
first given incidentally in connection with the daily 
work. There must be no definitions, no diagrams, no 
theories, no hard words, no conscious introspection. 
Pupils become acquainted with the self-world, just as 
they become acquainted with the sense world. Self- 
study goes on side by side with Nature study. The 
lessons in conduct and history and literature are often 
the best self-lessons. Mind lessons are as wholesome 
and helpful as object lessons. 

2. Intermediate Mind Lessons. During the sev- 
enth and eighth years one mind lesson a week is ex- 
ceedingly helpful. These lessons are based on pupil 
experience. JSTothing is said about soul, or psychol- 
ogy, or faculty. Definitions are not yet thought of. 
Memory is simply a self -remembering, and judgment 
is a self- judging, and choice is a self-choosing. These 
lessons fit into the pupil's life and supplement the les- 
sons in all the other studies. They prepare the pupil 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEx\lCHING. 313 

as nothing else can to understand man and history and 
literature. It is a mistake to send our pupils out into 
life with vague and often hurtful self-notions. Clear, 
well-defined elementary self-knowledge is the best 
preparation for life. 

3. Elementary Psychology. During the first and 
second high-school years the mind lessons are given 
in connection with the study of practical ethics ; and 
during the third and fourth years an easy elementary 
text-book in experimental and descriptive psychology 
is studied. 

High-school pupils feel an irrepressible longing for 
deeper insight into the self-world and the social world 
and the cosmic world. The conduct teacher wisely 
leads them, and so they become real explorers and not 
dreamers. Each lesson is based on experience ; but 
the pupil now seeks to enrich his own experiences by 
the experiences of the race. Each pupil is led to create 
his own ethics and his own psychology. One lesson 
a week throughout the four high-school years will 
ground the pupils in essential self-knowledge, and will 
work into their lives the best things. In another 
decade, educators will wonder at the strange neglect 
of self-study in our nineteenth-century high schools. 

4. Philosophy. Philosophic methods characterize 
college work. In the conduct group of studies the 
practical ethics and elementary psychology of the high 
school become the psychology, the ethics, the logic, and 
the philosophy of the college. For convenience we call 

. this master group of studies philosophy. The college 
student learns to make larger and larger syntheses until 
he is able to think of all the sciences and of all knowl- 



314: SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

edge as a unit. Led by masters, he finds out what 
the universe is, and what men have thought and 
achieved, and slowly creates for himself his own phi- 
losophy. It must be best to give to philosophy two 
weekly recitation periods throughout the college years. 
Conduct ideals may thus become cosmic ; life plans 
may thus be projected on higher planes ; high en- 
deavour may thus get to be habitual. 

Methods in teaching Practical Religion. 

Man is a religious being. The conduct cycle em- 
braces self, others, God. Complete living is cosmic. 
All men love Jesus, for he loved all men. The 
best in all men is found in Jesus. He lived the 
one perfect life, and taught the one perfect moral 
code. Because we think of religion as sectarian, as 
creed, as dogma, we exclude it from our schools ; but 
practical religion, the life of Jesus, is as broad as the 
race. Many object to formal religious teaching in our 
schools, but in all the world is there an enlightened 
man who does not approve of getting the lessons of 
the great Teacher into the hearts and lives of our 
pupils ? May not this be found to be the solution of 
the problem of religion in our schools ? Practical re- 
ligion is to live as Jesus lived. The life of Jesus in 
our schools would almost infinitely elevate the aspira- 
tions and conduct of onr pupils. 

By stories, by opening songs, by verses read, we 
lead our pupils to think of Jesus as their best friend. 
Somehow we lead them to say from the heart, " Give 
us this day our daily bread," and to feel grateful for 
all good things. As the child asks its mother to for- 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 315 

give, so the pupil comes to ask liis best Friend to for- 
give. The past faults pardoned, each morning the 
pupil begins a new life and tries to live a better life. 
Herein is law of moral betterment. The teacher tries 
to live as Jesus lived, and so teaches by example and 
gentle words and kind acts. In the opening songs the 
pupils sing practical religion into their hearts. Teacher 
and pupils repeat or chant the prayer that Jesus taught 
his pupils to say. There is no formality, no cant, no 
dogma ; but somehow the pupils come to feel the emo- 
tions of worship, the highest and most elevating of all 
emotions. Our pubhc schools are weak in practical 
religious teaching. Because of the misapprehension 
that religious teaching is necessarily sectarian, the 
tendency is to secularize our schools and leave religion 
to the family and the Church. The larger proportion 
of our pupils are thus deprived of the most vital ele- 
ment in conduct culture. In some way the familj^, 
the school, and the Church should come to work to- 
gether to get the best into the lives of the young. 
The life and the lessons of the great Teacher seem to 
meet all the conditions. Catholic and Protestant, 
Jew and gentile, atheist and theist, may build to- 
gether on the Hock of Ages. 

Practical Culture of the Moral Yirtues. 

Ethical Culture must be ingrained. — Conduct 
springs from within. Ethics can not be taught from 
the outside. Ethical training can not be something 
of extraneous character, but must be an integral pai't 
of the every exercise of daily life — the atmosphere 
in which one lives — the S23irit which one breatlies. 



316 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

With tliis view of the question, the public schools are 
pre-eminently the place where opportunity is given 
for character growing ; and if in any respect the out- 
put has heretofore been unsatisfactory, it behooves 
the people to be awake to the necessity of providing 
conditions that will make all the more powerful this 
fundamental factor of the American republic. 

Ethical Culture comes of doing. — There is ethical 
value in activity ; contrast the lives of the active and 
the idle. There is ethical value in order ; order is 
law-abiding, and disorder is law-violating. There is 
ethical value in habit ; habit makes or damns. There 
is ethical value in association ; not the monastery, but 
social life develops the noblest characters ; Lincolns 
and Gladstones grow amid the white heat of battle. 
There is ethical value in culture; the best in litera- 
ture and science and art is ethical ; compare cultured 
people with uncultured. There is ethical value in 
rational recreation ; play is sunshine, is divine. 

Virtuous Peoples teach the Possibilities of Moral 
Culture. — As we go to the Spartans to learn the pos- 
sibilities of physical culture, and to the Athenians to 
learn the possibilities of aesthetic culture, so we go to 
the peoples who have exalted the moral virtues to 
learn the possibilities of ethical culture. History and 
biography present marvellous object lessons in point. 
The savage is a savage from habit, for savagery is in 
the line of least resistance. The unthinking masses 
move round and round in the treadmill of custom, for 
this is easier than independent action. 

1. The Jews teach us Fidelity. For centuries it 
has cost much to be a Jew, and the story of the Wan- 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF CONDUCT TEACHING. 317 

dering Jew is a striking object lesson of tlie virtue of 
fidelity to enlightened conviction. Fidelity grows 
into a fixed habit. Through all the centuries the 
profound belief in Jehovah and in the Hebrew 
Scriptures has made the Jewish people a perpetual 
miracle. 

2. The Scotch teach us Integrity. Go to the 
homes, the schools, and the kirks of Scotland, and 
you find that integrity in things great and small is 
every way inculcated. The Scotch are a living ob- 
ject lesson in the practical culture of the moral vir- 
tues ; the Bible is the moral text-book in the schools 
of Scotland. 

3. The Quaker teaches us Truthfulness. His word 
stands for more than the oaths of other men. Early 
and always, the Quaker child and youth learns to 
love truth, and speak and act truth. 

4. The World's Moral Heroes teach us the Moral 
Yirtues. We study the life of Jesus as the one per- 
fect life. We study the lives of the best women and 
men, that we may discover how they grew into moral 
greatness ; and herein sacred and classic history and 
literature must be counted at their highest value. 

Ethical Environments favour Ethical Culture. — A 
moral atmosphere conditions the growth of the moral 
virtues. A sturdy moral manhood is almost impossi- 
ble in the midst of moral pestilence. Our first care 
should be to remove alluring temptations and degrad- 
ing influences. Moral seclusions are very necessary. 
The second care should be to throw around the child 
and youth all favouring influences. Helpful environ- 
ments, helpful literature, helpful society, helpful work, 



318 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

are of incalculable value. Our third care should be to 
incite high purposes and earnest work. The idle 
classes, rich and poor, are our moral lepers. 

Ethical Habits are of Highest Value. — Moral ances- 
try tends to morality, and practical ethics may gain 
valuable lessons from the study of heredity. The 
little child realizes that it ought to obey its parents. 
This impulse to obey because it ought is conscience. 
The child thus early gains the intuition of right, and 
begins to do moral acts. The greatest thing in educa- 
tion is the development of the habit of doing what we 
believe we ought to do. This is the education of 
conscience. 

Duty is the Keynote in Ethical Culture. — The 
millions pitch the tune of human conduct too low. 
They ask, "Will it give me pleasure?" "Will it 
pay ? " " Is it good policy ? " The consequent moral 
degradation is appalling. But duty is the keynote of 
every grand life. Conscience stands for duty, for it 
is our capability to feel duty impulses. Find right, 
choose right, do right, enjoy right, are the mandates 
of conscience. As the needle points to the pole, so 
conscience prompts each one to do duty as he under- 
stands it. Here all vital moral culture has its root. 
From infancy to age, the greatest thing in education 
is so to foster the ethical impulses that they shall be- 
come practically imperative in controlling human con- 
duct. The noblest work of God is a man who, from 
principle and from habit, does what he deems is right. 
The highest work of the educator is the development 
of such men and women. 



THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 319 



CHAPTEK XXYII. 

EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHINa THE LANGUAGE- 
LITERATURE GROUP OF STUDIES. 

Teaching and Learning Processes are ever the 
Same. — Child and man discriminate and assimilate, 
perceive and apperceive, analyze and sjntlietize, in- 
duct and deduce. But the child thinks as a child and 
the man as a man. Teaching leads the child to make 
its feeble efforts in such ways as to gain power through 
mastery. Teaching leads girls and boys to make more 
vigorous efforts, and so to gain greater power through 
greater mastery. The wise teacher adapts his meth- 
ods to the pupils and to the conditions. 

Languages and Literatures. — Modern insight into 
the essential unity of literature and language has 
revolutionized our methods in language-literature 
teaching. We teach language in teaching literature, 
and literature in teaching language. We study lan- 
guage and literature rather than languages and lit- 
eratures. The study of foreign classics re-enforces 
the study of English classics. The most hurtful 
mistake of the past was the divorcement of studies 
organically one. 

Courses in Language-Literature. — Schools and col- 
leges are steadily working up to as satisfactory and 
connected courses of study in English as in mathe- 
matics. The work in the elementary school fits into 
the work of the high school, and the work in the 
high school fits into the work of the college. 



320 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



The Language-Literature Group of Studies. 



Elementary schools. 



f 1. Reading. 
Eng-j 2. Literature, 
lish 1 3. Language. 
[ 4. Composition. 
For- r Languages 

^ and 
^^^^ t literatures. 



Secondary schools. 



r 1. Expression, 
Eng-J 2. Literature, 
lish { 3. Language. 
1^4. Rhetoric. 
For- fl^anguages 

. ^ and 
^^^ [^ literatures. 



Colleges. 



f 1. Expression. 
Eng-J 2. Literature, 
lish ] 3. Language. 

14. Rhetoric. 
For- f Languages 

eiffn"" ^^^ 
^ [ literatures. 



The language-literature studies are conceded double 
the recitation time of other study groups ; this con- 
cession, more than all arguments, emphasizes the be- 
lief in the value of this group of studies. In a brief 
chapter it is fitting that attention should be particu- 
larly directed to methods of teaching English in our 
elementary schools ; but we must have in view the 
advanced work, and the fact that, after the sixth school 
year, the study of other languages goes on side by side 
with that of our own. 

Special Programme in Language-Literature Studies. — 
The general programmes give to this group of stud- 
ies, in all schools below the college, two daily recita- 
tion periods. Well-considered special programmes, 
however, are most important. Each teacher must con- 
struct such a programme for herself, but suggestions 
sometimes help. In the first and second grades the 
time may be divided about equally between the read- 
ing lessons and the language lessons. During the 
third, fourth, fifth, and sixth years the recitations in 
reading and literature may alternate, as may the les- 
sons in language and composition. In the seventh 



THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 321 



and eighth grades and in the high-school classes one 
daily period may be devoted to English and one to 
a foreign language ; the work in English during 
these six years must be judiciously proportioned to 
teaching expression, literature, language, and compo- 
sition. Continuity and unity are the important 
things. The movement to begin Latin or a modern 
language in the seventh grade tends to become 
general. 

Organic Unity of the Studies in English. — " As to 
modern methods, the best of all is the teaching of the 
four related topics of expression, literature, language, 
and rhetoric as one organic group of studies, wholly 
interdependent and progressive." From the kinder- 
garten to the university this is one of the most fruit- 
ful educational movements of our times. In school 
and college the learner at every step is led to pursue 
these studies as essentially one branch, and as inti- 
mately related to all other studies. Specialization is 
a great educational device, but it has its helpful limits. 
It hurts when the specialist is narrow ; it hurts when 
a strong specialist unduly pushes his specialty ; it 
hurts when special teachers fail to work together as 
a teaching unit. In schools in which one compe- 
tent instructor teaches all the branches the unity of 
the work is secured ; but in specialized intermediate 
schools, in high schools, and in colleges there needs 
to be wise concentration. One mind must direct ; 
the teacher of expression, the teacher of literature, 
the teacher of language, and the teacher of rhetoric 
must work as a teaching unit — all supplement the work 
of each. 



322 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Teachers of EngHsh. — Thorougli jDreparation is in- 
dispensable. To-daj it is easier to find twenty good 
Latin teachers than one good teacher of English. 
But the outlook is cheering. In our high schools and 
colleges, English is now made the equivalent of the 
classics. The faculty in English of a certain college now 
numbers twenty-five instructors. 'No other group of 
studies requires broader culture or more thorough 
special preparation for teaching. With efiicient teach- 
ers of English in our elementary schools, our pupils 
will be started right and will be led to lay the best of 
all foundations for life work and advanced work. 

The Library in teaching English. — What the labora- 
tory is in science, the library is in English. Even in 
the primary the library is remarkably helpful. 

" Each teacher," says Dr. W. T. Harris, " should be furnished 
with a dozen copies each of three or four vohimes of selections 
from the best of classic authors, the selection being made from 
what is most attractive to children. These should be loaned for 
home reading to those pupils who prove that they have time to 
spare for supplementary reading by learning well the regular les- 
sons assigned them in school. Such books of good literature and 
history are likely to be read at home not only by the pupils, but 
by the parents and older brothers and sisters, and thus accomplish 
manifold good. When the set of books in one room is pretty well 
finished by the pupils in that room, exchange may be made with 
the next room, and different authors obtained." 

The library becomes more and more helpful as the 
pupils advance. Please read again as a part of this 
paragraph School Libraries, Chapter IX. 

Methods of teaching Reading and Expression. 
Reading is the key to treasured knowledge, and is 
the greatest art taught in the schools. We sometimes 



THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 323 

group the school studies with reference to use as in- 
formation studies, disciplinary studies, and culture 
studies ; in each group the good readers greatly sur- 
pass the poor ones. In its broad sense, reading in- 
cludes ability to call the words, grasp the meaning, 
and express the sentiment. 

Beading must be made a Special Study. — Teaching reading in- 
cidentally is like teaching algebra incidentally. " The reform of 
the reading lesson through 'supplementary reading' is the one 
that I find most liable to abuse. Many teachers have been in the 
habit of conducting lessons in reading as a jnere test of the pupil's 
acquired ability to read at sight, and not as a means of instruct- 
ing the pupil how to read well. They have accordingly given the 
child no lesson to study and prepare for the recitation, but have 
kept the reading book away from him until the hour of actual 
trial. Then the books are suddenly placed in the hands of the 
pupils, and they are expected to ' read at sight.' They read wl:iat 
they have not studied or seen before. The books, too, are not car- 
ried home by the pupils to be read in the family, nor are they 
studied by the pupils at school. Only one step further could be 
taken in this dire reaction — namely, entirely to abolish instruction 
in reading and expect the pupil to read newspapers and books ' at 
sight ' whenever he has occasion to do so in after life. I think it is 
clear enough that reading resembles any other branch of instruc- 
tion, and is to be learned by study, and study too on the part of 
the pupil. The teacher must teach pupils self-help. Unless some- 
thing is given for the pupil to prepare in reading, the teacher can 
not hold him responsible for results, and we have simply what is 
called a ' pouring-in ' process, or the old-fashioned, long since dis- 
carded habit of ' reading round,' which was a mere calling of words 
and a correction of pronunciation." — W. T. Harris. 

Methods of teaching Primary Reading. — How can 

we best teach the little ones to read ? How can we 
make learning to read a delight as well as educative ? 
We study the child. How does the baby learn to 
talk ? Just as he learns to walk. As the automatic 



321 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

muscular movements grow into willed acts, so the in- 
stinctive cries develop into intelligent expression. 
Instinct and imitation and growing intelligence are 
tlie factors. As the infant learns to talk so the child 
learns to read ; it learns to recognise written words as 
signs of ideas just as it comes to recognise spoken 
words as symbols of things. 

First Step. — We teach the children to find out 
and to tell about things. The kindergarten does this 
work admirably. The wise primary teacher keeps 
the beginner for weeks, and sometimes for months, in 
this preparatory work. There must be no hurry. To 
get the children ready to take the next step is a great 
thing in teaching. 

Second Step. — We lead the children to recognise 
written words as the symbols of ideas. Only words 
familiar to the ear are introduced at first, and upright 
script is used, because it is easier, plainer, and more 
like print. Reading is now the central study, and all 
other lessons re-enforce the reading lesson. The new 
word is hird / the science lesson is about birds ; the 
language lesson gets the pupils to talk about birds ; 
the literature lesson is a story about birds ; the draw- 
ing lesson leads the children to make pictures of birds ; 
the writing lesson teaches the pupils to write the word 
birds ; the number lesson asks how many birds. The 
reading lesson is devoted strictly to teaching reading, 
and the word bird is used with words previously 
learned in easy sentences. From the first the pupils 
read as they talk, because the written words are as 
familiar as the spoken words. When the pupils are 
ready for it, printed as well as script words are used. 



THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OF STUDIES. 325 

This is the essential step ; there should be great dis- 
cretion and sufficient time ; hurrj at this stage is inex- 
cusable. In the language lesson, when prepared for 
it, the pupils are taught to sound as well as w^rite 
familiar words. 

Third Step. — The pupils are led to read well choice 
child literature. Our scliool readers, as a rule, fur- 
nish suitable reading lessons, but it is best to supple- 
ment the readers by the library. To teach the pupils 
how to read and what to read, and to develop a taste 
for the best literature is, next to conduct, the great- 
est work of the primary school. 

Helps in teaching Primary Reading. — Detailed 
methods w^ould be out of place here, but we do most 
for teachers when we place in their hands excellent 
manuals by great teachers. We are especially rich iu 
helps for teaching primary reading. For some dec- 
ades we have been passing through the methods 
epoch. We began with the A-B-C method ; then we 
had the phonic and phonetic method ; then we had 
the word method ; then we had the sentence method ; 
then we had the look-and-say method ; then we had 
the — but it is needless to enumerate all ; each had its 
merits, did its work, and passed away. We now have 
in lieu of all the special methods what is termed the 
combined method, or the natural method, or the 
eclectic method, or the rational method. We teach 
our pupils to read ; whatever has been found helpful 
is utilized. I have found two classes of books sug- 
gestive and helpful : first readers and manuals of 
methods. Our standard first readers with the sug- 
gestions of authors are very valuable. Dr. Stanley 



326 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Hall's How to teach Reading is full of good things ; 
Dr. Hinsdale's Teaching the Language Arts has sev- 
eral valuable chapters on teaching reading; Prof. 
Sinclair's First Years at School and A. H. Garlick's 
Manual of Method must prove of great value to 
teachers. Of the many excellent manuals, teachers 
must select two or three and study them as suggestive 
helps. The school journals reflect the living present, 
and give us the freshest and best things in methods 
and devices. 

Methods in teaching Expression. — Reading in the 
elementary school becomes expression in the high 
school and the college. We think of expression as 
the crowning excellence of the course of study in 
English. That it should be said that conversation 
and good reading are lost arts is a severe criticism on 
our methods of teaching English. From the primary 
to the university the study of literature and the cul- 
ture of expression should go on together. The reac- 
tion against a boisterous elocution has worked the 
neglect of expression and even its omission from the 
courses of study in English in many of our high 
schools and colleges ; but the renaissance is begin- 
ning ; expression and language and literature and 
composition, in the future, will surely be studied as 
organically one branch. 

Methods of teaching English Literature. 

Education prepares pupils to be their utmost 
through character, and to do their utmost through 
hnowledge. History and literature do most to pro- 



THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OP STUDIES. 327 

mote these ends. When properly taught, they infuse 
high ideals, refine, and ennoble. They ground pupils 
in morals and manners, in taste, in religion, in good 
citizenship. That these studies have not thus been 
taught must be admitted ; that they may be so taught 
as to make for good conduct is now being demon- 
strated in many schools. From the primary to the 
college efficient methods in teaching literature are 
demanded. 

English Literature stands Pre-eminent. — "When the 
conceptions of an individual mind are expressed in a 
permanent form of words, we get literature." In the 
greatest works we have the best thought with the 
highest beauty of conception and expression ; we have 
apples of gold in pictures of silver. English litera- 
ture is surpassingly rich. It includes the pre-eminent 
creations of English-speaking authors, and the world's 
choicest classics transformed into classic English. In 
a hundred convenient volumes our English-speak- 
ing youth may have the best literature produced by 
the race. 

Bad Methods of teaching Literature. — Literature 
was not studied ; in Shaw's Manual and similar text- 
books the history of literature, rather than literature, 
was taught. Pursuing the methods of the classical 
teachers has been even a greater mistake. " Classical 
teachers tend to lay the stress on the grammatical and 
philological elements of the classics, to the exclusion 
of the literary elements. Most unfortunately, the 
classical teacher has stood as the model of the litera- 
ture teacher. It has been assumed that English litera- 
ture should be made to answer the same educational 



328 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

ends as foreign languages, and methods of teaching 
literature have been chosen with reference to that 
ideal. The assumption is false and the methods are 
vicious." — [B. A. Hinsdale.] 

Modern Methods of teaching Literature. — Literature 
is taught. Our best classical teachers now place the 
stress on the literature. Our best English teachers do 
not now conceal the literature bj their criticisms and 
comments. The pupil is led to study literature and 
to get out of it all there is in it for him. In the lan- 
guage and the composition lessons and the expression 
lessons, all helpful topics are studied ; but in the liter- 
ature lessons literature is studied, and is so taught as 
to accomplish its mission. 

Methods of teaching Language. 

The educator differentiates as well as concentrates. 
We teach as an organic unit literature, language, com- 
position, and expression ; but in teaching one of these 
studies we subordinate the others. In the language 
lesson we lead the pupils to form habits of correct 
oral and written expression, correct spelling and pro- 
nunciation, correct capitalization, and correct punctu- 
ation. We teach in the language lessons phonetics 
and word analysis, and the pupils are taught to 
use dictionaries. In these lessons we prepare the 
pupils for the lessons in reading, in literature, and 
in composition. We quarry and polish the stones 
which are to be built into the temple. The immense 
importance of these lessons is apparent. As the pu- 
pils advance, we lead them to discover the elements 



THE LANGUAGE-LITERATURE OP STUDIES. 329 

in the sentence and to distinguish the parts of speech. 
During the seventh and eighth school years we use a 
suitable Tnodern text-hooh in English grammar. In 
place of detailed methods, I submit as a part of this 
paragraph, Teaching the Language Arts, the able 
work of Dr. B. A. Hinsdale. Teachers are recom- 
mended to study also one or more of the excellent 
language-lesson manuals. 

Methods of teaching Composition. 

The study of English culminates in the composi- 
tion. The science lessons and the history lessons and 
the literature lessons furnish information. The lan- 
guage lessons give the pupil command of the sentence. 
The composition lessons, oral and written, teach the 
pupils to tell in good form what they know. The 
reading lessons prepare pupils to read well their own 
compositions. 

The Old and the New. — In the old education the 
composition writing was a dread ; in the new educa- 
tion composition writing is a delight. In the old, 
pupils were fed on husks, and were required to make 
bricks without straw ; in the new, the science lessons, 
the literature lessons, and the history lessons make 
the pupils rich in subject-matter. In the old, the pu- 
pil was cramped by rules ; in the new, pupils are free 
to tell in their own ways, but are led to tell in good 
form. In the old, the pupils were confined to the 
text-book ; in the new, the school library supplements 
the text-book, and does most to cultivate good Eng- 
lish. 



330 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

Nature Studies and Composition. — During the pri- 
mary years the science lessons and the composition 
lessons supplement each other. Children take deliglit 
in telling what they find out. Oral composition pre- 
pares for written composition. While the science les- 
sons are made the basis of the early composition work, 
we constantly utilize the history lessons and the liter- 
ature lessons to the great interest and profit of the 
pupils. 



CHAPTEE XXYIII. 

EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 

By the science studies is meant the information 
studies relating to the physical world. In our ele- 
mentary schools we designate the science group of 
studies as Nature studies. The marvellous growth 
of modern science increases the danger of overcrowd- 
ing our school courses. Teaching science rather than 
sciences is thought to be the safe preventive. Teach- 
ers are coming to consider the Nature studies as 
organically one branch of school work. The aim is 
to so teach essentials as to prepare pupils to be- 
come independent in their efforts to gain a mas- 
tery over the material universe. There must be no 
hurry, no crowding ; we must so teach a few things 
as to educate our pupils to work independently and 
find out all things. 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 33 1 

The Committee of Fifteen say : " It is very im- 
portant to have the science studies cover as fully as 
possible all the provinces of Nature. There is the 
inorganic province, containing the two fields of as- 
tronomy and physics ; and there is the organic or 
biological province, including botany and zoology." 
In practical school work the three lines of Na- 
ture study cover these provinces. The educational 
world of to-day agrees substantially in the following 
scheme : 



Science Group of Studies. 



Elementary schools. 


Secondary schools. 


Geography, 


oral 


Physical geography, ele- 


astronomy. 




mentary astronomy. 


Oral biology, 


oral 


Elementary biology, ele- 


hygiene. 




mentary physiology. 


Oral physics. 


oral 


Elementary physics, ele- 


chemistry. 




mentary chemistry. 



Colleges. 



Physiography, geol- 
ogy, astronomy. 

Advanced biology, ad- 
vanced physiology. 

Physics, chemistry. 



Each of the three lines of science work is continu- 
ous ; the geography and oral astronomy of the ele- 
mentary school become the physical geography and 
elementary astronomy of the high school, and the 
physiography, geology, and astronomy of the college. 
Biology and physics progress side by side with geog- 
raphy. The fact that the science group of studies has 
been accorded co-ordinate rank with language and 
mathematics best expresses the conviction of educators 
as to its educative value. The scientific method is 
revolutionary ; good science teaching tends to vitalize 
all teaching. The practical value of the Nature studies 
is so great that they are called the bread-and-butter 



332. SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

studies. As we come to pursue efficient methods in 
teaching these studies their great culture value be- 
comes apparent. The culture is different but none 
the less necessary. "We do well to magnify the edu- 
cational value of the science studies. 



Special Peogrammes for Nature Studies. 

In all schools below the college one daily recita- 
tion period is devoted to the science studies. What 
to teach, and when to teach it, and how to teach it are 
the vital considerations. 

Each teacher, after careful study, constructs a 
special programme for science work. The best things 
are selected, proportioned, co-ordinated, correlated. 
Here, as everywhere, the teacher is entitled to the 
best suggestive helps. The following manuals for 
teachers will prove especially helpful both in making 
programmes and in teaching elementary science : 

Nature Study and the Child, by Prof. C. B. Scott. D. C. Heath 
& Co., Boston. 

Nature Studies, by Prof. W. S. Jackman. Henry Holt & Co., 
New York. 

Systematic Science Teaching, by Prof. E. G. Howe. D. Ap- 
pleton & Co., New York. 

These educators have literally worked out ascend- 
ing spiral programmes covering all the ground. The 
appropriate work for each month of each of the ele- 
mentary school years is outlined and illustrated. The 
Nature studies are skilfully correlated, and the dis- 
cussion of matter and methods will greatly assist 
teachers. With these and similar aids it is now pos- 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 333 

sible for a teacher to make a judicious special pro- 
gramme for the several studies, and, with these 
aids, she may be able to lead pupils to do the most 
helpful science work. 

Efficient Methods in Geography. 

The pupil is led to study the earth as the home 
of man. In the light of experience, personal and 
appropriated, the child begins to create his world. 
Imagination is the master builder. 

1. Central, Geography is the central study in 
the elementary science group. Pupils are led to 
explore their environments and gain geographical 
experience. The lessons about plants and animals 
and rocks and stars and forces are naturally en- 
twined with the geography lessons. 

2. Correlated. Geography assimilates with all 
other studies. Biology is its twin sister, mathe- 
matics is its ally, history and civics are its dy- 
namics. All other studies are re-enforced by geog- 
raphy, and geography is enriched by the lessons in 
the other studies. But in the geography lessons 
geograjphy is taught ; everything else is made to 
help. 

3. Ilamials. l!Tot many decades ago the teaching 
of geography in our schools was wretclied. A great 
advance has been made. Teachers are coming to 
know what to teach and how to teach it. The aids 
for teaching geography are now abundant and excel- 
lent. Tlie following manuals for teachers are con- 
sidered peculiarly helpful : 



334 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

How to Study and Teach Geography, by F. W. Parker. D. 
Appleton & Co., New York. 

Methods and Aids in Geography, by C. F. King. Lee & Shep- 
ard, Boston. 

Manual of Methods in Geography, by A. E. Frye. Ginn & 
Co., Boston. 

Teachers will avail themselves of the many valuable 
aids that the years are furnishing us. Our text-books 
in geography, as well as our geographical apparatus 
and our manuals for teachers, are approaching our 
ideals. 

4. Primary Methods. Superintendent H. S. Tar- 
bell gives us some valuable suggestions : 

" Oral geography comes first ; the subject is the home — all that 
comes within the range of the child's senses. This should come 
before the book. This home study furnishes the elements for all 
future study of the world. Whenever anything new is to be 
taught, begin at home, with what is near and known. When you 
get beyond the things themselves, then go to pictures and maps, 
which are nearer the things than are words. Maps should be 
studied largely, early; read them, picking out natural features 
first — mountains, rivers, divides, valleys, plateaus, are very im- 
portant ; capes are for the most part of little importance. Every 
child should have a globe in his hand. He should always think 
of the world as a globe. Only on a globe can he learn the true 
direction and relative sizes. Maps can not be put into the geog- 
raphy all on the same scale ; but every map should have a scale 
attached, so many miles to the inch. In the oral lessons the 
teacher should talk about familiar things first. 

" When we come to the book, be careful not to misuse it. It is 
the first book which the pupil really studies, where he learns how 
to learn ; above all, he should not memorize the text. The 
child's first mode of learning is by hearing; the ear takes in 
thought more directly than does the eye. The child should get 
the thought from speech before he gets it from print. Geography 
especially helps to observe, to reflect; it is a complete subject, the 
essential subject for methods. The most stupid thing is for the 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 335 

teacher to write things on the blackboard, and have the children 
copy them in notebooks. In giving questions, give such as can 
be answered after study, but not literally from the book. Each 
lesson should start with review questions. 

" The new geography is that of forces, of how things have come 
to be, of movement. This is the first part of the study. Later 
comes descriptive geography, that of localities." 

Methods in Biology. 

Biology stands for the study of plants and animals. 
No other studies awaken so much educative interest, 
or so fully foster pupil growth. As a means for edu- 
cating pupils to observe and classify, these studies 
stand pre-eminent. No other studies so naturally and 
so completely assimilate with all the other study 
groups. 

1. Evolution. Biology was not thought of by 
the old schoolmaster. The crude object lessons, an 
outgrowth of the Pestalozzian movement, heralded 
the beginning of better things. Nature study came 
as the fruit of insight into pupil nature and pupil 
needs. The systematic study of plants and animals is 
a marked characteristic of the new education. 

In the near past no attempt was made by the 
great body of our teachers to lead pupils to study 
Nature. As the century closes, all teachers are try- 
ing to lead their pupils to explore the beautiful 
realms of plant and animal life. As a rule, the teach- 
ing of biology at present is far from satisfactory, 
but it is a beginning. In our modern high schools 
the science teaching by specialists is a delight. Early 
in the twentieth century science in our grammar 
schools will be admirably taught by intermediate 



336 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

specialists. Soon our primary and our rural teachers 
will come to teach biology as skilfully as they now 
teach reading and arithmetic. 

2. Pi'epared Teachers. For teaching biology, as 
thorough preparation is required as for teaching Greek. 
First of all, the teacher must take a boundless inter- 
est in the realms of organic life. Then, under skil- 
ful guidance, the teacher must explore the world of 
plants and animals and gain insight into the economy 
of organic Mature. Besides, skill in the art of teaching 
science lessons must be acquired. At present we must 
be content with some imperfect work, as opportunities 
for preparation have been wanting. The outlook is 
cheering. Our future teachers as primary pupils 
will live close to Nature. Specialists in the inter- 
mediate and high schools will lead the pupil on 
to mastery. Able instructors in the normal school 
will train the pupils to teach efficiently the I^fature 
studies. Our educational journals, our summer nor- 
mals, and our faculty work will keep our teachers 
advancing. 

Manuals. We are becoming rich in helpful 
manuals, and our teachers are entitled to all possible 
aids. Think of it, most teachers must teach all school 
branches ! How important it is to economize every 
energy ! Each teacher must pursue her own plans, 
but a really excellent manual is so suggestive and so 
economical that I submit as a part of this paragraph 
the chapters on plants and animals in Howe's System- 
atic Science Teaching. The presentation of matter and 
method in these chapters must prove of inestimable 
value to the teachers of our elementary schools. The 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 337 

manuals referred to on page 332 are especially com- 
mended. 

Lilrary. The science teacliiiig in our elementary 
schools is strictly oral, but pupils are led to learn 
from books as well as from Nature. The pupils are 
led to read books of exploration and travel, and books 
about animals and plants. The library supplements 
the teaching of the school. 

Correlation, The biology lessons seem to blend 
naturally with nearly all other lessons. They enrich 
and re-enforce the conduct lessons ; they enter into 
the warp and woof of composition and literature; 
they become an organic part of all other Nature les- 
sons ; they illustrate and apply mathematics ; they are 
the soul of art. Nature studies enrich the entire 
work of teaching and enrich human life. In the art 
of teaching, correlation is vital, and is the antidote 
both to waste labour in education and to overcrowding. 

Physiology and Hygiene. As an important part 
of the biology work, little by little pupils are led to 
understand their bodies, and are trained to carry hygi- 
enic laws over into hygienic habits. The few lessons 
given may be of inestimable value. It is not deemed 
best to unduly extend these lessons in our elementary 
schools. In the primary the great thing is to secure 
hygienic habits. In the intermediate, besides fixing all 
good hygienic habits, the pupils are led to gain a gen- 
eral knowledge of their physical organism and of hy- 
gienic laws. The importance of these lessons impresses 
us when we consider that a vast majority of the gram- 
mar-school pupils go directly into life. The wise teacher 
studies to give them the best things to prepare them 
23 



338 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

to live hygienically. These lessons supplement the 
physical-culture lessons, and are re-enforced by the 
conduct lessons. 

Methods in Physics. 

The physical sciences treat of energy apart from 
life, and include physics, chemistry, astronomy, and 
the physical portions of geography, geology, meteor- 
ology, and mineralogy. For practical purposes the 
school world has divided these sciences into two 
lines of work : the geography line, which includes 
astronomy and the physical portions of geology, 
meteorology, and mineralogy ; and the physics line, 
which includes physics and chemistry. The lessons 
in physics blend readily with all other science lessons, 
and hence go on side by side with the geography and 
biology lessons. In our elementary schools some les- 
sons in chemistry are given in connection with the 
lessons in physics, but oral physics is the leading 
study. 

1. Value. "There should be in the elementary 
school from the first a course in the elements of sci- 
ence. Each science possesses some phases that lie 
very near the child's life. There should be a spiral 
course in natural science. A first course should be 
given in botany, zoology, and physics so as to treat 
of the structure and use of familiar plants and ani- 
mals and the explanation of physical phenomena as 
seen in the child's playthings, domestic machinery, 
etc . " — Convinittee of Fifteen . 

" No other subject gives such breadth of develop- 
ment as physics. The knowledge which a pupil gains 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING SCIENCE. 339 

by observation and experiment is a knowledge wliicli 
may be applied in untold ways." — E. R. Shaw. 

2. Helps. The elementary work is strictly oral. 
The teacher must use great discretion in the selection 
of topics. I find no special manuals for teachers, but 
we have excellent books giving the subject-matter and 
suggesting methods. The following are taken from 
a list of many good works : 



Physics by Experiment, by E. R. Shaw. Effingham, Maynard 
& Co., New York. 

Gilford's Elementary Lessons in Physics : Thompson, Brown 
& Co., Boston. 

Avery's School Physics : Sheldon & Co., New York. 

With the help of such suggestive works the teach- 
er may plan his course of lessons in physics and do 
good teaching. The courses in elementary physics in 
our summer normals are of great value. 

3. Ohservation and Experiment. The lessons are 
so taught that pupils learn to observe and test things 
for themselves. The easy experiments, as far as pos- 
sible, should be made by the pupils. In the primary 
course pupils gain experience ; theory and explana- 
tion will usually hurt and not help. In the interme- 
diate course pupils begin to understand laws and ex- 
planations, but the work is limited to essentials. We 
prepare our pupils to go out into life interested ob- 
servers and discriminating experimenters. A good 
foundation is laid in experience. 

4. Apparatus. Simple and inexpensive apparatus 
is the best. Grammar-school pupils will readily make 
most of the apparatus needed. Still, in our times 
necessary apparatus is good economy. The essential 



34:0 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

thing is tlie use of the apparatus by the pupils. By 
all means lead each pupil to perform each experiment. 
5. Correlation. Arithmetic, concrete geometry, 
drawing, physics — these studies naturally and help- 
fully supplement each other. Many examples in 
arithmetic may properly be taken from the lessons 
in physics. The things learned in the lessons about 
light, heat, electricity, sound, etc., enter into nearly 
all other lessons. 

Results of Systematic Science Teaching. 

The most astonishing result of good science teach- 
ing is the increased interest in the other studies. The 
facts and methods of science are wonderfully invig- 
orating and inspiring. " Pupils, when science is prop- 
erly taught, develop remarkable powers of observa- 
tion, for they learn to think about what they see ; 
they apperceive as well as perceive. They learn to 
think facts into system, so that each fact throws light 
on the other facts, and thus all facts help to explain 
each." The inborn love of birds and flowers is awak- 
ened, and a loving interest in all JSTature is quickened 
so that pupils come to lind in Mature studies bound- 
less resources for enjoyment. Just now the educator 
studies with profound interest the schools in which sci- 
ence is well taught in comparison with other schools. 
The marked betterment in the moral, intellectual, and 
practical lives of the pupils is apparent. The study 
of science in connection with the other study groups 
does much to make life worth living. 



METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 341 
CHAPTER XXIX. 

EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 

School and college courses place matliematics side 
by side with literature and science. " The study of 
mathematics has an educational value as contributing 
knowledge, discipline, and culture. Since mathe- 
matical science is the instrument of measurement or 
measurement by computation, it has a knowledge value 
which is illustrated in all the vocations of life. With- 
out it science and civilization would be impossible and 
commerce would be a dream. The concepts of num- 
ber and space, the simplest of all abstract notions, are 
combined by the simplest logical processes ; hence 
mathematical studies afford the easiest and most natu- 
ral introduction to the severe abstract studies." (J. 
M. Taylor, in School Review.) In no other studies 
do pupils so readily acquire habits of systematic, per- 
sistent, and concentrated application. 

Mathematics Group of Studies. 



Elementary schools. 

Arithmetic, algebra 

begun. 
Concrete geometry, 

oral trigonometry. 



High schools. 



Algebra, arithmetic. 

Demonstrative geom- 
etry, trigonometry. 



Colleges. 



Higher algebra, cal- 
culus. 

Intuitive geometry, 
trigonometry, etc. 



The two lines of study are continuous and are in- 
terlaced at every step. The work in the elementary 
school is largely objective and practical, but in the 



342 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

high school it is demonstrative. The elementary 
studies prepare the pupils for advanced work as well 
as for practical life. 

Special Pkogeammes foe the Mathematics Studies. 

Each teacher prepares a specific programme for 
the lessons in mathematics, designating the time to be 
given to each subject. Nearly all educators now 
agree that one daily recitation period, during the ele- 
mentary and high-school years, should be devoted to 
mathematics ; but all do not agree as to the time to 
be given to each line of work. Conditions modify 
to some extent our plans. The following scheme, 
it is claimed, has much to commend it : Below the 
seventh grade, four weekly recitation periods are de- 
voted to arithmetic and one to concrete geometry. In 
the seventh grade two periods are devoted to arithme- 
tic, two to beginning algebra, and one to concrete geom- 
etry. In the eighth grade three periods are given to 
introductory algebra, one to arithmetic, and one to 
concrete geometry. In the seventh and eighth grades 
some lessons in oral trigonometry are given in con- 
nection with concrete geometry, and some lessons in 
bookkeeping are given in connection with arithmetic. 
During the first year in the high school three periods 
are devoted to algebra, one to arithmetic, and one to 
concrete geometry. During the second high-school 
year four periods are devoted to geometry and one 
to algebra. During the third high-school year two 
periods are given to geometry, two to algebra, and 
one to applied mathematics. During the fourth high- 
school year three periods are given to trigonometry 



METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 343 

and two to applied mathematics. Each teacher will 
study to do most for his pupils and will vary the pro- 
gramme to snit the conditions. The gains from con- 
tinuous interlaced work are very great. 

Helps in teaching Mathematics. — We gather into 
helpful books the lessons learned from the masters. 
Each teacher may now work in the light of human 
experience. 'No teacher can afford to disregard these 
helps. 

Methods in Mathematics, Report of the Committee of Ten. 
American Book Company, Cincinnati. 

History and Methods of Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, by 
Superintendent J. M. Greenwood. Sheldon & Co., New York. 

The Teacher's Outfit in Mathematics, by J. M. Taylor. School 
Review, Chicago. 

Methods in Mathematics is submitted as a part of 
this chapter. In the second book named, Superintend- 
ent Greenwood gives us a most interesting history of 
the mathematics studies and presents practical meth- 
ods of teaching these branches. From many sources 
teachers will gain helpful suggestions. 

Preparation for teaching Mathematics. — l^early all 
teachers must to some extent teach mathematics. 
Special preparation conditions good teaching. In no 
other studies is there so much danger from presump- 
tion. Attention is directed to some items in the 
work of preparation. 

1. Appreciation. In no other group of studies 
does so much depend on the appreciation of the sub- 
ject and the enthusiasm of the teacher. There is a 
joy in peaceful mathematics. " God geometrizes con- 
tinually, and to study geometry is to think the thoughts 



344 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

of God after him," was the conception of Plato. 
With a high conception of the grandeur of this reahn 
of knowledge and with a high ideal of the art of 
teaching mathematics one can inspire and lead his 
pupils. The true teacher feels a delight in the mathe- 
matics lessons that the machine teacher never dreams 
of. Appreciation is vital. 

2. Mastery. The elementary teacher must know 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry as 
sciences in order to teach well arithmetic and con- 
crete geometry. He must also take a lively interest 
in the application of mathematics in science and in 
business life. A mere superficial memory knowledge 
is utterly inadequate. Mastery is essential. 

3. Psychology. The teacher must know the pupil 
as well as mathematics. Education is a rational pro- 
cess, and lawful effort develops power. Teacher sym- 
pathies encourage the pupils, and teacher intelligence 
adapts the work to the learner and guides the efforts 
of the pupils. The prepared teacher understands his 
pupils and has gained insight into the psychology 
of mathematics and its applications in teaching this 
group of studies. Insight is fundamental. 

4. History. The story of the evolution of mathe- 
matics attracts the teacher. Its growth from a rude 
beginning to a boundless realm of knowledge is more 
wonderful than romance. Incidents from this history 
will enthuse pupils. Teachers gain much by ap- 
proaching the work from the historic standpoint. 
Historic 'knowledge helps. 

5. Teaching. Teaching is the art of leading pu- 
pils to develop power through mastery. Methods are 



METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 345 

based on principles. Each lesson is a new creation. 
All routine, all nostrum devices, all mechanical meth- 
ods, and all educational quackery are utterly detested. 
The teacher is an artist, and so leads the pupil to mas- 
tery with the minimum expenditure of time and ener- 
gy. However gifted and however learned, no one un- 
skilled in teaching is prepared to teach mathematics. 
Shill in teaching is the crowning jpreiMration. 

Methods of teaching Arithmetic. — The arithmetic 
teaching of the old schoolmaster was bad, yet pupils 
learned to compute. The waste in time and energy, 
it is true, was enormous, and the ordinary attainments 
were meagre. The betterment in arithmetic teaching 
during the last half of the century has been note- 
worthy. Many causes have combined to promote this 
improvement. The multiplication of graded and nor- 
mal schools, the creation of teachers' associations, in- 
stitutes, and summer schools of pedagogy ; the publi- 
cation of improved text-books and manuals, and the 
circulation of progressive school journals are some of 
the influences that have worked this result. Arith- 
metic is now fairly well taught in our schools. Though 
the teaching is not quite ideal, it is believed that arith- 
metic is now better taught in our elementary schools 
than any other branch of study. 

The Arithmetic Work in Elementary Schools. 

For six years, four weekly recitation periods are 
devoted to arithmetic. During the seventh and eighth 
years four weekly periods are given to arithmetic and 
introductory algebra. The so - called mental and 
written arithmetic are united in each recitation. The 



346 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

former practice of having two daily recitations — one 
in mental and one in written arithmetic — has been 
abandoned by most teachers. Our modern text-books 
omit the puzzles, numerical conundrums, and anti- 
quated topics of the old arithmetics. Those who pro- 
test against giving so much time to arithmetic will 
do well to study the educative and practical value of 
this branch. Arithmetic is the logic of the elementary 
school and the key to the Nature studies. It is the 
best means for developing habits of concentration and 
continuous attention. It is thought that the time 
now accorded to arithmetic in our best schools is 
ample, but that further reduction is not permissible. 

Helps in teaching Arithmetic. 

Work and Methods in Arithmetic, Reports of Committees of 
Ten and Fifteen. American Book Co., New York. 

Psychology of Number and its Applications to Methods of 
teaching Arithmetic, by McLellan and Dewey. D. Appleton & 
Co., New York. 

Manual of Methods in Arithmetic, by A. H. Garlick. Long- 
mans, Green & Co., New York. 

In the reports named, teachers get the maturest 
plans in the briefest space. The second book named 
marks an epoch in the art of teaching all subjects. 

The authors so develop the psychology of number 
and its applications to methods of teaching arithmetic 
that a similar treatment of all other school studies is 
made necessary. The result will be the discarding of 
unsound empirical methods and the substituting of 
scientific methods. JSTowhere else have I found 
arithmetic so well taught as in the Kansas City, Mo., 



METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 3^7 

schools. Superintendent J. M. Greenwood, in the 
Eeport of the United States Commissioner of Educa- 
tion for 1893-94, has given a large number of verbatiin 
reports of recitations in arithmetic, in different grades 
and different schools. I commend these lessons as 
highly instructive and suggestive. Such admirable 
works as Dr. E. E. White's Manual of Methods in 
Arithmetic deserve a place in the outfit of every 
elementary teacher. 

Primary Methods in Arithmetic. 

Three distinct meth- / Method of symbols. 

ods are used in teaching Methods. ] Method of things 

. ( Method of thought. 

primary arithmetic. 

1. Method of Syrnbols. The old schoolmaster used 
the method of symbols. The natural genesis and use 
of number was not thought of, and so the symbols 
were treated as entities. This method was mechanical 
and artificial. Tables and rules were committed to 
memory ; operations were mechanical applications of 
rules. The number of routine teachers who are 
slaves to the method of symbols is still far too large, 
but the method has practically disappeared from our 
modern schools. 

2. Method of Things. Transition teachers used 
the method of things. This was called the object 
method, as number was thought of as a property of 
objects. I^umber was made meaningless. Practically, 
this method was an immense improvement, but it made 
mental activity incidental, and so failed to build on 
the rock. Many of our teachers still use the method 



348 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

of tilings, but tlie transition to better teaching is 
rapidly going on. 

3. Method of Thought. The wise teacher uses 
the rational method. Things and measurements oc- 
casion insight into the world of much and many. A 
prepared pupil, in dealing with objects, gains the 
number idea by direct insight. The actual use of 
certain things in reaching a certain end occasions the 
rise of the number idea. The pupil experiences things 
involving number and gets intuitively the number 
idea. ^Number is a mode of measuring values, and 
a prepared mind dealing with objects originates the 
number notions. Things occasion number ideas and 
symbols stand for these ideas. Every step in arith- 
metic is rational, and is easily taken by the prepared 
pupil. The rational method leads the pupil to create 
his arithmetic. Myriads of absurd notions and hurt- 
ful devices, like mist before the rising sun, fade away 
in the light of the rational method. 

First and Second Years. At six, pupils have 
gained the number idea, and may now profitably ad- 
vance by easy steps. The number lessons are the 
easiest of all lessons. The work is strictly oral, and 
is skilfully adapted to the pupils. There is no hurry. 
A few things are well taught. The pupils now live 
in the world of things. During these beginning 
years the lessons are about the child world, and are 
all natural and easy. Correlation of studies is now 
complete, for the number work seems to naturally 
enter into all the other work. Pupils continually 
measure and weigh and group and count. Xo defi- 
nitions or rules or logical explanations are yet thought 



METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 349 

of, but the work is rational and leads on to higher 
work. Right habits are now formed, and a solid 
foundation is laid. 

Third and Fourth Years. An easy progressive 
primary arithmetic, in which the oral and written 
work are combined, now supplements the work of the 
teacher. The correlation of the studies continues to 
be almost complete. The examples are drawn largely 
from the other studies. There is no hurry and no 
crowding ; all lessons are easy and suitable. Pupils 
readily learn fractions. In connection with decimals, 
the metric system is learned. Definitions and rules 
and formal explanations are still deferred; pupils, 
however, learn to think, learn accuracy, learn to work 
rapidly. Measuring and weighing is daily work, and 
a good foundation is laid for advanced work. 

Methods in Advanced Arithmetic. 

We think of pure j Pure arithmetic 

arithmetic as the sci- ^^^™™'i Applied arithmetic. 

ence of numbers, and of applied arithmetic as its ap- 
plications to particular calculations concerning lines, 
surfaces, solids, times, forces, money values, etc. 
This distinction will simplify the work and econo- 
mize time and energy. The advanced arithmetic is 
be^un in the fifth s^rade and is studied for four years. 
I. Ideal Text-book. — We will have two books m 
our ideal series — a primary arithmetic for the third 
and fourth grades, and an advanced arithmetic for 
the four grammar-school grades. Some of the char- 
acteristics of the advanced arithmetic, it is thought, 
wdll be as follows : 



350 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

1. It will not he a Large Book. It will include es- 
sentials presented in good form, but will omit rubbish. 
Extraneous topics, conundrums, definitions, rules, 
answers, and tedious details will be left out. It will 
be an inviting text-book, and will be supplemented by 
the teacher and the pupils. 

2. It will he Modern. It will be up to date. The 
examples will represent the living present. The met- 
ric system will be taught as an application of deci- 
mals. Our antiquated tables will be consigned to 
antiquarian research, and the lingering relics of out- 
grown things will be replaced by things of to-day. 

3. It will comhine Oral and Written Arithmetic. 
This is counted an educational desideraticin. Suit- 
able alternate examples for oral and written work will 
be skilfully united from the first to the last page. It 
will displace the old mental and written arithmetics 
that still linger in some of our schools. 

4. The Equation will he tised. Even in the sixth 
grade equations will be used to some extent. In the 
seventh and eighth grades the w^ork in arithmetic 
and introductory algebra will go on together. This 
feature will have great educational significance. The 
interlacing of related studies characterizes the new 
education. 

5. Applied Arithmetic will have its Place. As 
applications of percentage, we will have interest, com- 
mission, discount, etc. Easy bookkeeping, metric 
geometry, and the lessons in physics will be some of 
the helpful work in applied arithmetic. 

6. It willy ahove ally foster Thinking. Supple- 
mented by good teaching, it will lead pupils to make 



METHODS OP TEACHING MATHEMATICS. 35 1 

their own definitions and rules. It will develop the 
spirit of sturdy self-reliance and pluck. It will en- 
courage research by starting inquiries and leaving pu- 
pils to find out. We now have a considerable number 
of arithmetics that approximate our ideal. Teacher, 
please refrain from writing another arithmetic ; what 
we want is good teaching. 

II. Arithmetical Correlations. The applications of 
arithmetic in other studies largely increases the inter- 
est and greatly enhances the value of this study. We 
carefully guard against extremes, but the natural and 
helpful applications of arithmetic are without limit. 
Metric geometry affords a wide field for helpful ap- 
plications of arithmetic. Business gives boundless 
opportunities for applied arithmetic. The lessons in 
physics call for helpful applications of arithmetic. 
The gains from legitimate correlations are so marked 
that it is surprising to find so many teachers still ad- 
hering to the " isolation device " of our ancestors. 

III. Objective and Practical Work. — Pupils in our 
elementary schools seek to know rather than to prove. 
The instruction should be objective and practical, but 
educative. Intelhgent guidance is essential. By trial, 
by measurement, by constructions, the pupil should 
be led to discover for himself the simple truths and 
operations of arithmetic. Pupils should be led to ap- 
ply the lessons learned in manifold ways. Good , 
teaching helps the pupil to gain insight and to make 
his own definitions and rules. Original work is fos- 
tered. Pupils are encouraged to do effective think- 
ing. The inferences in pure arithmetic are easy, but 
applied arithmetic demands the most vigorous thought 



352 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

of the pupil. For extended treatment of methods in 
arithmetic we must again refer teachers to valuable 
manuals prepared by able educators. 

Methods in Intkoductoky Algebra and Conceete 

Geometuy. 

We are learning to treat the mathematics group 
of studies as one branch. Our pupils come to think 
of arithmetic and algebra and geometry as one study. 

1. Introductory Algebra. Algebra uses the sym- 
bols of arithmetic, but algebraic statements are gen- 
eral while arithmetical statements are particular. It 
is well to get elementary pupils to think of algebra as 
general arithmetic. The use of letters and the equa- 
tion will sufficiently illustrate the distinction. To a 
limited extent it is safe to begin to use the equation 
in the sixth grade. In the seventh and eighth grades 
arithmetic and algebra are studied together. The ad- 
vantages of this plan are apparent. In the high 
school algebra is pursued as a demonstrative science 
but in the elementary school the method of arithmetic 
is used, at least in part. In the eighth year the tran- 
sition is made. We carefully avoid the danger of 
pushing algebra too far. 

2. Concrete Geometry. These lessons are of great 
practical value, but we must keep in view that they 
are introductory to demonstrative geometry. As 
in arithmetic, the work is objective and practical. 
" The whole work in concrete geometry will connect 
itself on the one side with the work of arithmetic 
and on the other with elementary instruction in phys- 
ics. With the study of arithmetic is therefore to 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 353 

be intimately associated tlie study of algebraic signs 
and forms, of concrete geometry and physics. This 
is a striking instance of the interlacing of subjects 
which seem so desirable." (Committee of Ten.) In 
concrete geometry, as well as in arithmetic, pupils are 
led to use linear equations and the literal notation. 
For full treatment, teachers are referred to the excel- 
lent manuals for teaching concrete geometry. The 
aim here is to interest all teachers in the forward 
movement for interlacing the studies of arithmetic, 
algebra, and geometry in our elementary schools. 



CHAPTEK XXX. 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 



Teaching includes all art, for it is the art of man- 
hood. The teacher is an artist, and she fosters the art 
spirit in all school work. She leads her pupils to 
create as well as to appreciate. 

The School Arts. 



Elementary schools. 

Physical culture. 
Vocal culture. 
Manu-mental culture. 



High schools. 



Physical culture. 
Vocal culture. 
Manu - mental cul- 
ture. 



Colleges. 



Physical culture. 
Vocal culture. 
Manu - mental cul- 
ture. 



The three lines of art study are co-ordinate, continu- 
ous, and progressive. Each begins in the nursery and 
24 



354 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

goes on through all the school and college years. For 
practical reasons the language arts are included in the 
language-literature group of studies. The three lines 
of art work are organically one branch of study ; each 
contributes to make the most of the body. The edu- 
cative value of the art studies is coming to be recog- 
nised, and these studies are now given a place in all 
modern school and college programmes. 

Special Aet Pkogkamme for Elementary Schools. 

In many of our best schools, ungraded and graded, 
two daily recitation periods are now given to the art 
work : one to physical and vocal culture and one to 
manu-mental culture. The lessons in physical and 
vocal culture are given on alternate days and are 
supplemented by brief daily exercises. The hourly 
recesses and the home exercises are counted as a part 
of the physical-culture work. The manu-mental cul- 
ture lessons come daily ; besides, in the seventh and 
eighth grades, on alternate Saturdays, two hours are 
devoted to manual training. The results are highly 
satisfactory ; instead of retarding, the art work facili- 
tates progress in the other studies. Educators are 
coming to agree that while nothing is lost, the gain 
from the art studies in our schools is immense. 

Special Preparation for teaching the School 

Arts. 

To teach the school arts well requires as thorough 
preparation as for teaching the science studies. As a 
basis, the teacher must understand the physical and 
mental economies and the stages and laws of physical 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 355 

and mental growth. Then each line of art work must 
be in some degree mastered. Above all, leadership 
in the art work requires an absorbing interest in the 
art studies. Special training in teaching each line of 
art work is essential. 

In art teaching as in E'ature teaching we have at 
present three classes of teachers. First, we have the 
untrained teachers, who do the best they can ; next we 
have the partially trained teachers, who do reasonably 
good work ; and next we have the skilled art teachers, 
who inspire a love for the art work and who lead 
pupils on to success. In another decade, teachers will 
come up to our normal schools through our special- 
ized intermediate and high schools, and skilled art 
teachers will become the rule. Our summer normals 
are doing a great work in improving art teaching all 
along the line, and our school journals are admirably 
supplementing all the other instrumentalities for fos- 
tering preparation for art teaching. 

Akt Teaching in Specialized Intermediate 
Schools. 

The school arts constitute a splendid group of 
studies for an intermediate specialist. The three 
lines of work are organically one branch of study. 
All tend to so develop and train the body as to 
make it the fittest instrument for the mind to work in 
and through. The intermediate specialist profound- 
ly studies the physical economy and the school arts, 
and she gives her best energies to promoting physical 
vigour, vocal culture, and manual art. She is able to 
do vastly more for pupil betterment than a teacher 



356 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

who has to teach all the school studies, and who can 
give but a fraction of her energies to the art work. 
The intermediate art specialist has each pupil one 
hour daily for four years. The benefits of four years 
of systematic and skilful art training are simply in- 
calculable. The earnest teacher who instructs in all 
the branches can do much to interest and guide her 
pupils in the art work, but the specialist can do vastly 
more for her pupils. (Eead Chapter XXIII.) 

Physical Culture Demands. 

Physical vigour is fundamental in education. In 
order to achieve, one must be able to do and to en- 
dure. Physical culture is the art of making most of 
our bodies. 

Hygienic Conditions. — Favourable environments are 
conditions of health and growth. Let us turn back 
and reread School Hygiene, Chapter TV. How may 
we help to secure better hygienic conditions ? Home 
hygiene is as necessary as school hygiene. Through 
our pupils, through lectures, and through the press 
we can do much to promote better home hygiene. 
We hold ourselves responsible in part for our school 
environments. The best exercise will not help much 
in cheerless, filthy, poorly heated, and poorly lighted 
schoolrooms. 

Hygienic Habits. — We do most for the physical 
well-being of our pupils when we lead them to form 
good hygienic habits (see page 49). We not only teach 
our pupils the laws of health, but we also get them to 
live these laws. The conduct lessons and the science 
lessons are re-enforced by the physical-culture lessons. 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 357 

Physical training best expresses the art work in 
physical culture. The little ones in the kindergarten 
and the primary schools are literally trained into hy- 
gienic habits, but intelligent self-training characterizes 
the intermediate and high-school physical culture work. 
The best hygienic habits formed in the primary and 
intermediate become fixed in the high school and the 
college ; they literally become life habits. 

Physiology of Exercise. — We study the nature of 
exercise and we gain insight into the philosophy of 
education. Fatigue, rest, growth — these processes con- 
stitute an interesting chapter in the story of human 
development. Physiology of Bodily Exercise, by Fer- 
nand Lagrange, International Scientific Series,"^ is sub- 
mitted as a part of this topic. 

1. Fatigue. Nerve cells are exhausted by effort. 
Exertion reduces these cells nearly one half in quality 
and quantity. The process of exhausting nerve cells 
is called fatigue, and we use this term to represent ex- 
ercise as well as its results. Fatigue reduces the bulk 
and the structure of nerve cells. When normal rest 
repairs the exhausted nerve cells and restores physical 
vigour, the fatigue is normal ; when it does not do this, 
the fatigue is abnormal. Overexertion or underex- 
ertion tends to produce the tired feeling called morbid 
fatigue. Not to heed the danger signal of morbid 
fatigue is a fatal blunder. The workman from neces- 
sity and the sportsman from excessive ardour carry 
exertion beyond the normal-fatigue limit and so pro- 
duce morbid fatigue and disease and death. 

* D. Appleton & Co., New York. 



358 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

2. Rest. Kepose restores the broken-down nerve 
cells. After refreshing sleep we awake rested, rein- 
vigorated. Rest stands for the process of restoring 
broken-down nerve cells as well as for the result. 
Normal rest restores vigour. Insufficient or excessive 
rest is abnormal. I^ormal rest balances normal fatigue. 
[N^ormal rest strengthens, but abnormal rest weakens. 
Excessive sleeping or waking rest tends to produce 
abnormal fatigue with its train of maladies. 

3. Growth. Effort exhausts, repose restores, growth 
results. This sentence is the text for a hundred vol- 
umes. Teacher, ponder it well, and write your views 
in an essay to read to your fellow-teachers. Normal 
fatigue and normal rest condition health and growth. 
We lead our pupils to do their best when at their best ; 
we thus promote healthy and vigorous growth. De- 
velopment through fatigue and rest greatly interests 
us, for it brings us very near the heart of things. 
What mighty truths seem about to emerge ! 

4. Drudgei'y. Effort continued after the normal- 
fatigue limit has been reached is drudgery. Drudg- 
ery hurts and does not help. Work, when teacher 
and pupils are fresh, educates ; work when teacher 
and pupils are fatigued is drudgery and tends to 
dwarf. The wearing drudgery of so much of our 
school work is appalling. Through stupid methods 
of studying, of teaching, of examining, of reporting, 
of marking, and of promoting, our teachers and our 
pupils are often made drudges. Teachers must be 
quick to perceive when the normal-fatigue limit has 
been reached. School drudgery must go. 

Teacher, the study of fatigue and rest may save 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 359 

you and your pupils from many hurtful devices. 
You will carefully plan to have restful recitations 
follow exhausting studies, and you will arrange to 
have rest follow work. You will prize the hourly 
recess as the school safety-valve. You will study to 
keep your pupils and yourself fresh and happy. 

Objectionable Exercises. — School and college exer- 
cises in physical training must tend to promote phys- 
ical vigour, must reach the body of learners, and must 
be free from injurious tendencies. However popular 
uneducative games may be, the teacher does not hesi- 
tate in his disapproval. We venture to call attention 
to some classes of exercises deemed harmful. 

1. Vicarious. Physical culture is a personal mat- 
ter. It means bodily exercise for the purpose of per- 
fecting the physical organism by increasing health, 
strength, and skill. A team, or a crew, or a club may 
represent, but can not help the student body. Vica- 
rious athletics can not be classed as school exercises. 
Modern football, the regatta, and all similar games 
are strictly vicarious athletics. The lovers of sport 
think of these games as they do of the turf and the 
ring, but they do not consider them, in any true sense, 
school games. They may deepen the interest felt in 
physical culture and manly sports, but can do nothing 
more. They do not help the student body. 

2. Brutalizing. The heavy competitive athletics 
of the Spartans, the gladiatorial contests of the Eomans, 
and the bull fights of the Spaniards, tended to brutal- 
ize the participants and the spectators. However 
great their claims for physical culture and the devel- 
opment of manly courage, the brutalizing tendencies 



360 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

of the ring and the gridiron seem to be irredeemable. 
On this ground, sooner or later, we must reject as 
school games all brutalizing contests. 

3. Excesswe. Games that exhaust are objection- 
able. A severe game of football makes efficient study 
impossible for hours, and even days. Suitable school 
exercises tend to develop and refine the whole person, 
but do not exhaust. When the tendency of an exer- 
cise is to abnormal fatigue it should be modified or 
rejected. Exercises must tend to better fit the stu- 
dent for efficient study. Games, such as chess, check- 
ers, cards, and dominoes, that give too little exercise, 
must be rejected as games for students. They waste 
precious time and more precious energy and give no 
invigorating returns. 

4. Military. Military tactics are unobjectionable 
as to the above counts, and in many respects, are de- 
sirable as school exercises. However, it is believed 
that educators will ultimately reject dancing, and 
military tactics and boxing as school exercises for two 
reasons : (1) They are not the best available exercises 
for promoting physical vigour, grace, and skill ; (2) 
their tendencies are not so wholesome and desirable as 
graded gymnastic exercises. For sufficient reasons 
boxing and dancing have been, as a rule, rejected as 
school exercises. I do not doubt that military tactics 
will share the fate of dancing and boxing when tested 
in the light of experience and the spirit of our civili- 
zation. Civic culture in our times is vastly more im- 
portant than militarj^ culture. We must work to de- 
velop the grandest manhood. Our pupils are entitled 
to the best. But we must not antagonize helpful 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 361 

movements by our factious opposition ; we are bound, 
however, to do what we can to replace hurtful exer- 
cises by helpful exercises. Our pupils are entitled to 
the best things. 

Efficient Methods in Physical Training. 

Physical vigour is our ideal. The Spartans devel- 
oped physical prowess, the Athenians physical beauty, 
and the Romans iron endurance. Our civilization 
demands the high thinking of the Athenians and 
the iron endurance of the Romans rather than the 
physical prowess of the Spartans. In the arts of 
peace and war, brains and implements are now su- 
preme. The age of brute force is past. The manly 
men and the womenly women now are the brave 
thinkers and the noble doers. Jesus is our ideal of 
a manly man. Physical training is the art of devel- 
oping a vigorous physical manhood. Exercise is the 
means. Well-directed physical effort makes for growth 
and vigour. The body is so developed and trained as 
to be the fittest instrument for a self to work in and 
through. 

1. Adapted Exercises. The physical exercises 
should be as wisely adapted to the physical condition 
of the pupil as the mental exercises to his mental con- 
dition. The light exercises and the invigorating 
plays of the kindergarten and the primary school are 
adapted to the little ones. The more vigorous and 
varied exercises of our grammar schools are adapted 
to the girls and boys. The invigorating exercises of 
the high schools are adapted to the youths. The 
helpful athletics of our colleges are adapted to young 



362 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

women and young men. The graded system of exer- 
cises worked out by Carl Betz, director of physical cul- 
ture in the Kansas City, Missouri, schools, is admirable 
in theory and practice. It is based on the principles 
of the German system, but is completely adapted to 
the wants of our schools. The Emerson system of 
physical culture skilfully adapts the exercises to the 
growing pupils. Other excellent systems now in use 
give satisfactory results. But most depends on the 
teacher. Only the wise teacher can adapt the exer- 
cises to classes of pupils and to individual pupils. 

2. Outdoor School Exercises. The hourly recess 
in elementary and high schools is a physical-culture 
imperative. No other device can do so much to keep 
pupils fresh and happy. Real recreation must follow 
work. Rest must balance fatigue and drudgery must 
be made to disappear from the schoolroom. The 
benefits from systematic exercise are manifold, but 
the free exercises of the playground and the home 
must supplement the systematic exercises of the school- 
room. Outdoor exercises are most helpful, and when 
conditions justify, it is every way best to have some 
of the systematic exercises in the open air. We plan 
to have the free exercises of the recess follow these 
outdoor systematic exercises. 

3. Spontaneity. It must be so managed that pu- 
pils will engage with zest in the exercises. The play 
spirit must in some way be infused into the system- 
atic exercises. Glad efforts develop power. The 
kindergarten exercises are ideal. The same is true of 
the exercises in many of our primary schools. Only 
in our grammar and high schools do the exercises 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 363 

tend to become meclianical and irksome, and hence 
comparatively unprofitable. It is believed that 
adapted and varied exercises, skilfully managed, may 
be made a delight to advanced pupils and college 
students ; self-training is educative. 

4. Habitual Home Exercises. Here we get the 
best. As ^Q do most for our pupils intellectually by 
fostering studious habits and broad interest, so we do 
most to promote their physical well-being by lead- 
ing them to form permanent hygienic habits. Ex- 
ercise is not a fetish ; self-effort promotes growth and 
vigour, but exercises must be fitting. Unfitting exer- 
cises, like wrong medicines, work injury. We inter- 
est each intermediate- and high-school pupil in his 
personal problem. Each asks, ^' How can I make 
most of myself?" To begin, each one must make 
most of his body through exercise. Pupils thus in- 
terested enter with zest into the school exercises. 
What is far more important, they develop habits of 
systematic home exercise. Each, after long trial and 
much consultation, decides on a life plan for taking 
regular exercise. 

(1) Home Gymnastics. Pledge : " I will devote 
fifteen minutes daily to systematic exercises." Some 
exercise that calls into play the entire body is selected. 
Prof. R. L. Brown at eighty-three was an efiicient 
college professor. " Since boyhood," he tells us, '^ I 
have taken exercise with Indian clubs fifteen minutes 
daily. To this exercise and my daily walks I attribute 
my ability to work on." In life, as in school, sys- 
tematic exercise makes the difference between success 
and failure. 



ff 



364 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

(2) Walking, Pledge : " I will walk one mile 
daily." What have been the exercises of great men ? 
Kant got his gymnastics in his daily lectures, and for 
fourscore years kept up his vigour by long daily walks. 
The constitutional walks of Bismarck and other great 
men are proverbial. Walking is one of the very best 
of all exercises and should be practised as a fine art. 
It is a great thing to get this pledge into the lives of 
our pupils. 

(3) Cycling. Pledge : " I will cycle two miles 
daily." The bicycle seems to have come to stay. 
Cycling is claimed by Miss Frances Willard and an 
innumerable host of experts as an ideal exercise. 
Bicycles are becoming so cheap that nearly every 
pupil over ten years of age will be able to own or 
secure the use of a bicycle. Cycling supplements 
walking. 

(4) Working. Pledge : " I will work thirty min- 
utes daily." Home duties supplement but do not 
take the place of systematic exercises. Every child 
should be trained to work. In the golden age of Athens 
each Athenian youth was required to learn a trade. 
Pural industries have large educative values. The 
habit of doing regularly real work is highly impor- 
tant. Work promotes growth and vigour when the 
laws of fatigue and rest are observed. The teacher by 
example and by precept should dignify work. Chop- 
ping was the favourite work of Greeley and Glad- 
stone. Paul made tents. We may so manage as to 
lead most of our grammar- and high-school pupils to 
embody the four pledges in habits which they will 
keep up through college and through life. In so 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 3G5 

doing we shall certainly enable them almost to double 
their vigour and their worth. 

(5) Rowing^ etc. Many excellent exercises, like 
rowing and horseback riding, may be considered. 
Some may profitably substitute rowing for cycling ; 
horseback riding may be chosen by some instead of 
cycling ; or these exercises may be taken on alternate 
days. Such games as croquet and tennis should be 
encouraged. 

Interest in Physical Culture. — Pupil study, phys- 
iological psychology, and a truer philosophy of 
education have awakened a lively interest in the phys- 
ical improvement of the race. That physical better- 
ment conditions mental and moral betterment is now 
accepted as an educational axiom. The educational 
press leads in many helpful suggestions and supple- 
ments the many valuable manuals on physical culture. 
The earnest teacher will study to become an artist in 
promoting physical as well as mental and moral cul- 
ture. 

Efficient Methods of teaching Yocal Music. 

The educative value of vocal music is very great. 
The culture of the ennobling emotions is as important 
as the culture of reason. Man is a social being and 
music and conversation are pre-eminently the social 
arts. Yocal culture makes us companionable. Song 
and story are the sunshine of the home and the 
school. Yocal culture does much to make life worth 
living. 

1. Course in Music. The little kindergartners 
sing just as the birds sing. They are happy and ex- 



366 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

press their joy in song and play. The children dur- 
ing the first and second primary years express their 
joys in song and play and story as in the kindergar- 
ten ; but when the pupils are ready for it, they are 
led to read easy music just as they are led to read 
easy print. Theory and definitions are not thought 
of. During the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, 
and eighth years, the graded lessons in music are mas- 
tered side by side with the graded lessons in mathe- 
matics and science. Throughout the four high-school 
years and the four college years the students have two 
lessons each week in vocal culture — one in music and 
one in expression. 

2. Teacher Preparation. IS'o other musical in- 
strument equals the human voice. Yocal culture is 
the most desirable of all accomplishments and one of 
the most essential preparations for teaching. The 
preparation for teaching vocal music should be as 
thorough as the preparation for teaching Latin. The 
culture is its own reward. Each primary teacher 
must be a lover of song and story and play as well as 
a lover of children. Teachers in ungraded schools 
should be able to teach music as skilfully as they 
teach arithmetic. In another decade teachers of vocal 
music in our intermediate schools as now in our high 
schools will be specialists, but vocal culture will be 
sought by all teachers. 

Class Methods. Here as everywhere the earnest 
teacher learns from the masters. Teaching vocal 
music to classes is an advanced art. Each individual 
pupil must be instructed and trained and each must 
be enlisted in the study of music. Concert work 



METHODS OF TEACOING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 367 

even in music has its limits. Each pupil needs spe- 
cial attention. Yocal music must be taught as thor- 
oughly as mathematics. The excellent manuals for 
teachers of vocal music are certainly of great value, 
but the teacher needs to get inspiration and methods 
from living artists. 



Efficient Methods in teaching Drawing and 

Writing. 

Manu-mental culture develops intellect and emo- 
tion and will through hand training. It includes as 
school arts drawing, writing, and making. Eorra 
study and drawing complement each other. All art 
involves drawing. Drawing is a universal language, 
and its applications are manifold. The modern 
teacher is skilful in blackboard drawing. Agassiz, as 
he lectured, seemed to make the germ grow from the 
egg to the fully developed bird. Whatever the sub- 
ject, drawing re-enforces good teaching. Inability to 
draw cripples the most gifted of teachers. " Oh, that 
some wise teacher had taught me to draw ! " is the sad 
refrain of many a learned professor. 

1. Educative Value. Drawing is the key to the 
world of manual art. It brings into the lives of our 
pupils something of painting, sculpture, architecture, 
landscaping. Literature, music, drawing — these are 
studies that develop taste and imagination. The draw- 
ing lessons awaken interest, and when well conducted 
educate aesthetic feeling, develop intellect, and culti- 
vate will. Drawing aids pupils in all other studies. 
The practical value of drawing is incalculable. It is 



368 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

not surprising, therefore, that drawing has worked its 
way to a permanent place in all modern schools. 

2. Preparation for teaching Drawing. The com- 
ing teacher will be cultured and skilled in drawing. It 
is not meant that teachers will even attempt high art, 
but they must be prepared to lead their pupils to ap- 
preciate art creations ; they must be prepared to con- 
duct the drawing lesson as intelligently as they con- 
duct the geography lesson ; they must be prepared to 
draw rapidly and reasonably well on the blackboard. 
All teachers in our primary and ungraded schools 
must be prepared to teach drawing. Drawing in the 
near future will be taught by specialists in our inter- 
mediate schools as in our high schools and normal 
schools. 

3. Drawing Manuals. However skilled teachers 
may be, they will need to consult constantly the best 
manuals. These manuals embody the best thought 
and experience of experts, and are rich in helpful 
suggestions. Prang's Form Study and Drawing Man- 
uals are considered excellent. The Prang Educational 
Company, of Boston, have done much to promote 
art education. Teachers will get suggestions from 
manuals and from living teachers, and will then cre- 
ate their own ideals and pursue their own plans. 

4. Course in Drawing. Drawing is begun in the 
kindergarten and is continued in some form through 
the school and college years. Two drawing lessons a 
week in elementary schools and one lesson a week in 
high schools and colleges will suffice for the many. 
These lessons are supplemented by the applied draw- 
ing in nearly all subjects. Excluding drawing from 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 369 

high-school and college courses is considered a funda- 
mental educational mistake. The suitable weekly les- 
son keeps students in touch with the art world. 

5. Writing. The tendency is to the use of the 
vertical system of writing and to greatly shorten the 
time usually devoted to teaching writing. Daring the 
primary years it is found satisfactory to have the 
writing and the drawing lessons on alternate days. 
Later the necessary training in writing is given in 
connection with drawing. 

Fine penmanship is not a school art ; speed and 
legibility are the aims. Children learn to write as 
they learn to read, and writing and reading go on 
together. Teachers should look well to positions and 
movements, and manage to get pupils to write plainly 
and rapidly. 

The vertical writing in some modified form will, 
it is believed, be the writing of the future. Teachers 
will learn to so teach writing as to economize energy 
and make this art of greatest value in all school work 
and in life. Suggestive manuals will aid in the work. 

Efficient Methods in Manual Training. 

" Making " best expresses the manual-training 
idea. Form study, drawing, and manual training are 
supplementary. To some extent manual training, the 
newest of all our school studies, is beginning to be 
continuous through the school and college years. .How 
to make manual training in its most helpful forms 
general is one of the educational problems of our times. 
The little kindergartners mould and weave and cut 
and paste. Our best primary schools continue the 
25 



370 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

manual-training work of the kindergarten and adapt 
it to the grades. As we transform our graded gram- 
mar schools into specialized intermediate schools we 
will make the solution easy for this class of schools. 
Art specialists will command the necessary facilities 
and appliances for efficient work in the art studies. 
In some of our high schools the manual training 
is becoming excellent. Some of our normal schools 
include in their art work excellent courses in manual 
training. Our ungraded schools and our unspecialized 
grammar schools are still, as a rule, without manual 
training. Satisfactory plans for efficient manual train- 
ing in these schools have not yet been devised. Some 
teachers, however, are succeeding, and that all may 
succeed is no longer doubted ; but we must not at- 
tempt too much nor expect too much. We must 
study the conditions and gradually introduce the lines 
of manual training most fitting. 



EFFICIENT METHODS OF TEACHING. 

SUGGESTIVE STUDY HINTS AND TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION. 

Good Teaching in lieu of Extraneous Incentives. — Read again 
pp. 177-195. Why do you contend that vital teaching is the 
very essence of helpful school work? Discuss the questions: 
*' Should written recitations take the place of formal written ex- 
aminations ? " "Should good teaching banish per-cent mark- 
ing ? " " Should educative records and reports displace per-cent 
drudgery*?" "Should good teaching lead to promotion and 
graduation 1 " " Why should oral and book teaching be made 
complementary?" Does the investigation method of studying 
and teaching include all methods ? 

XXVI. Efficient Methods in Conduct Teaching. — Discuss, " Is 
conduct the greatest thing in education?" What are the char- 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 371 

acteristics of the conduct group of studies ? Follow the five lines 
of conduct work through the schools and the college. Discuss, " Is 
the conduct group of studies of the highest educative value?" 
Give your method of teaching the special conduct lessons. Why- 
is educative school government considered the best conduct work? 
Discuss primary methods in history ; intermediate methods ; high- 
school methods ; college methods. How will you teach civics in 
primary classes ? in intermediate classes ? in high-school classes ? 
Discuss, " How should mind lessons be taught in primary classes ? 
in intermediate classes? in high-school classes ? " How may prac- 
tical religion be efiiciently taught in all our schools ? Why must 
ethical culture be ingrained ? What lessons do we learn from the 
Jews ? from the Scotch ? from the Quakers ? from moral heroes ? 
Discuss, "Is duty the keynote to ethical culture?" Mention the 
three books you consider most helpful in conduct culture. Give 
some benefits of a good working library in conduct teaching. 

XXVII. EfB.cient Methods in Language-Literature Teaching. — 
Show that the four lines of language-literature work are organ- 
ically one. Trace these lines through the schools and the college. 
Discuss, " Is it best to give this group of studies double the recita- 
tion time of the other study groups ? " Describe your ideal spe- 
cial programme for language-literature work in the primary ; in 
the intermediate ; in the high school. Give some of the advan- 
tages of specialization in teaching this group of studies in inter- 
mediate schools. Discuss the importance of the working library 
in teaching English. Point out some of the correlations of litera- 
ture and other studies. Discuss, " Should reading be made a spe- 
cial study ? " Give your method in teaching primary reading. De- 
scribe the first step ; second step ; third step. Describe the A-B-C 
method ; phonetic method ; word method ; sentence method ; 
look-and-say method ; rational method. Why should lessons in 
expression be continuous ? Point out the educative value of lit- 
erature. Why should language and literature be interlaced? 
State the evils of divorcing these studies. Point out the blunder 
in teaching the history of literature rather than literature ; in fol- 
lowing the old classical ideal. Give your plan for teaching litera- 
ture in the primary; in the intermediate; in the high school. 
What do the language lessons include? Give your method in 
primary language lessons. How should composition be taught in 
the primary ? in the intermediate ? in the high school ? 



372 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 

XXVIII. EflS.cient Methods in Science Teaching. — Discuss, " We 
should teach science rather than sciences." Are the science 
studies organically one branch ? Follow the three lines of Nature 
study through the schools and the college. Describe your special 
spiral programme for Nature work ; describe Prof. Jackman's ; de- 
scribe Prof. Howe's. What is meant by making geography central 
in the elementary science group ? Mention three helpful manuals 
for geography teaching. Give your method in primary geog- 
raphy ; in intermediate geography. What is your estimate of the 
educative value of biology ? Eelate the history of biology in our 
schools. Why should the preparation for teaching biology be 
thorough? Give some of the correlations of biology and other 
studies. Outline your method of teaching biology in the primary ; 
in the intermediate : in the high school. How should we teach 
physiology and hygiene in elementary schools "? State educative 
value of physics. Give reasons for teaching physics side by side 
with the other lines of Nature study. Give your plan for teach- 
ing physics in the primary; in the intermediate; in the high 
school. Show that good science teaching enables pupils to accom- 
plish more in their other studies. Visit and contrast schools in 
which science is and is not well taught. 

XXIX. Efficient Methods in Mathematics. — Compare the culture 
value of mathematics and language ; the knowledge value of 
mathematics and Nature studies. Trace through the schools and 
the college the two lines of mathematical work. Give some rea- 
sons why these lines of study should be continuous ; should be in- 
terlaced. Compare the special programme of the author and your 
ideal programme for the mathematics studies. Why does the wise 
teacher welcome excellent manuals of methods? Are working 
libraries important in mathematics work? Discuss each of the 
five lines of preparation for teaching mathematics. Tell the 
story of methods of teaching arithmetic. Give an outline of the 
arithmetic work in elementary schools. Discuss " Psychology of 
Number." Prove that psychology determines methods. Examine 
method of symbols ; method of things ; method of thought. De- 
scribe methods in arithmetic during the first and second years ; 
during the third and fourth years; during the fifth and sixth 
years ; during the seventh and eighth years. Discuss the charac- 
teristics of the idear text-book in arithmetic. Show the correla- 
tions of arithmetic. Give your reasons for placing introductory 



METHODS OF TEACHING THE SCHOOL ARTS. 373 

algebra in the seventh and eighth grades. Discuss the question, 
"Should concrete geometry be taught in elementary schools'?" 
Show the correlations of concrete geometry and other studies. 

XXX. Efficient Methods in the Art Studies. — Describe the three 
lines of art study in our schools and colleges. Show that the 
school arts are organically one branch of study. State the advan- 
tages of specialized intermediate and high schools in teaching the 
school arts. Discuss the preparation of the teacher for teaching 
the art group of studies. How much time should be given to the 
art studies in elementary schools ? in high schools f in colleges ? 
State some of the hygienic conditions of physical culture. Why 
are hygienic habits so important? What do you mean by fa- 
tigue ? by rest 1 by growth *? by normal and abnormal fatigue ? by 
drudgery? Why are vicarious, brutalizing, and excessive school 
exercises objectionable 1 Compare the ideals of various peoples as 
to physical culture. Give reasons for adapted exercises ; for free 
exercises ; for spontaneity. What systematic home exercises can 
you recommend? Discuss the four pledges. Discuss habitual 
work as exercise. How do you account for the marvellous inter- 
est now manifested in physical culture? Give six reasons why 
vocal music should be taught in our schools and colleges. What 
can you say about the culture value of music? about preparation 
for teaching music ? about class methods in teaching music ? Dis- 
cuss the culture value of drawing ; the practical value ; the value 
to the teacher. Prove that manual training should have a place 
in all our schools. Review Manual of Manu-mental Culture, by 
R. K. Priz, American Book Company. 

Manuals of Method. — The following are some of the helpful 
general manuals : 

De Garmo's Essentials of Method. D. C. Heath & Co, Boston. 

McMurry's General Method. Public School Publishing Com- 
pany, Bloomington, 111. 

Brook's Normal Methods. Sower & Co., Philadelphia. 

Parker's Concentration. E. L. Kellogg & Co., New York. 

Johonnot's Principles and Practice of Teaching. D. Appleton 
& Co., New York. 

Greenwood's Principles of Education practically Applied. 
D. Appleton & Co., New York. 

Garlick's Manual of Method. Longmans & Co., New York. 



SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S SCHOOL 
MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Pages 3 to 54. 

I. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH BETTER EDUCATIONAL 
CONDITIONS. 

1. Discuss " Does progress come of ideals in advance 

of reals ? " 

2. Show that pupil betterment is the central idea in 

school management and school methods. 

3. Describe your ideal school; your ideal teacher; 

your ideal pupil ; your ideal school board. 

4. Discuss " Is pupil study the most important thing 

in the new education ? " 

5. Explain how pupil study helps teachers ; how it 

works pupil good. 

6. Give the author's plan for pupil study; the plan 

of Prof. Earl Barnes ; of President Hall ; your 
plan. 

7. What is the infant ? the child ? the boy ? the youth ? 

the young man ? 
8 Point out the gains from studying the pupil as a 

physical being; as a self; as a moral agent. 
9. As an educator, what does the teacher do for the 

pupil ? Illustrate. 

10. Discuss " Is teaching a learned profession ? " " May 

teaching be made a learned profession ?" 

11. Why must the ideal teacher be gifted? cultured? 

prepared ? devoted ? progressive ? 

375 



376 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 

12. Discuss "Should schools for educating teachers be 
sustained ? " 

13 What is meant by school hygiene? by home hy- 
giene ? by personal hygiene ? 

14. Discuss " Is the hourly recess a hygienic desidera- 

tum ?. Is it an educational imperative?" 

15. Show that free exercise as well as systematic exer- 

cise is indispensable. 

16. Explain the sanitary value of pure air; of normal 

temperature; of proper light ; of play. 

17. Describe the civiHzed toilet; the sanitary cloak- 

room ; the hygienic lunch. 

18. Show the value of regularity; of cleanliness; of 

abundant sleep ; of hygienic diet ; of suitable 
clothing; of cheerfulness; of self-control; of 
physical vigor. 

Pages 55 to 90. 

II. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH BETTER EDUCATIONAL 
FACILITIES. 

1. What do you mean by educative environments? 

by school management ? 

2. Describe your ideal school location; school grounds; 

schoolhouse. 

3. Tell the story of the evolution of the schoolhouse; 

describe what you have seen. 

4. How can we make the best school work possible? 

how secure physical comfort? 

5. Describe the teacher's ideal schoolroom outfit; 

describe desirable schoolroom decorations. 

6. Give the meaning of school apparatus; the value 

of; the use of; the care of. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 37/ 

7. Describe your ideal educative school grounds; 

schoolroom ; blackboard. 

8. What apparatus is needed in conduct teaching ? in 

language-literature teaching ? in science teach- 
ing ? in mathematics teaching ? in art teaching ? 

9. Give your views about making, buying, and taking 

care of apparatus. 

10. Dismss "Are books the best helps in. teaching and 

in learning? " 

11. Review the six characteristics of the ideal text- 

book. Describe your ideal text-book. 

12. Discuss "Should text-books be free in our public 

schools?" 

13. Outline the history of school libraries; give your 

estimate of their value. 

14. Discuss " Should every schoolroom have a work- 

ing library ? " 

15. Describe the working library of a rural school; 

of a primary school ; of an intermediate school ; 
of a high school. 

16. How would you manage department libraries in 

rural schools ? in primary schools ? in interme- 
diate schools ? 

17. In what way may general libraries be made most' 

beneficial ? 

18. Discuss " Should school faculties manage the work- 

ing libraries ? " 

Pages 91 to 146. 

III. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE SCHOOL 
GOVERNMENT. 

I. What is meant by teacher-governing power? by 
the teacher as the vital factor in the school ? 



378 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 

2. Discuss " Is moral worth primary in school govern- 

ment ? " 

3. In governing power show the value of character; 

of culture; of pupil insight; of teaching power; 
of heart power ; of will power ; of system ; of 
tact ; of bearing. 

4. What do you mean by government? by school 

government ? by motives ? by incentives ? 

5. Discuss " May the teacher determine pupil motives ? " 

" Is the teacher responsible for pupil conduct ? " 

6. What is meant by hurtful incentives ? by low in- 

centives ? by high motives? Illustrate. 

7. Explain the three classes of high motives; the 

three classes of highest motives. 

8. Discuss "Is an ideal school an embryo state?" 

" Are wise laws fundamental ? " 

9. State the educational principles that determine 

school regulations ; illustrate each. 

10. Expound the educative school code; illustrate its 

enactment ; explain its educative value. 

11. What do you mean by order? by law-abiding? by 

self-government ? Why is self-government best ? 

12. How will you develop the habit of working quiet- 

ly ? of regularity ? of promptitude ? 

13. How will you educate your pupils to act properly ? 

to do right ? 

14. Discuss "Does educative suffering tend to work 

reformation ? " " Is educative punishment reme- 
dial ? " 

15. Examine the principles relating to school punish- 

ments; illustrate each. 

16. What are helpful school punishments? Discuss 

disapproval; reproof; privations; suspension. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 379 

17. What are hurtful punishments? Discuss corporal 

punishment; fear; cruel punishments; unjust 
punishments; low marks. 

18. Discuss "May rational control be safely substi- 

tuted for the rod in our schools?" 

Pages 147 to 197. 

IV. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH EDUCATIVE CLASS 
MANAGEMENT. 

1. Tell the story of school evolution; of individual- 

ism ; of classification. 

2. Describe the class ; its object ; its adaptation ; size 

of classes ; value of the class. 

3. Explain the art of happy class control. Discuss 

**Is attention through interest fundamental?" 

4. Give your plan for classifying ; for promoting. 

5. What do you mean by class work? by the reci- 

tation ; by good class work ? by poor class 
work ? 

6. Review the six characteristics of educative class 

work. Name some other characteristics, 

7. Explain class methods; the unity method; the in- 

vestigation method ; the teaching question meth- 
od ; the conversation method; the discussion 
method; the lecture method. 

8. Describe class devices ; the class ; written work ; 

laboratory work ; outline work; reporting; teach- 
ing; original devices. 

9. What do you mean by school tactics ? state the 

object; the value. 
10. Give some determining principles. How does a 
signal-clock help ? 



380 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 

11. Illustrate fitness in calling and dismissing school; 

in calling and dismissing classes ; in recitation 
tactics ; in blackboard tactics ; in concert tactics. - 

12. Contrast the old education and the new as to oral 

and book work. 

13. Compare oral and book teaching in the kinder- 

garten ; in the primary ; in the intermediate ; in 
the high school ; in the college. 

14. Describe the oral teaching and the book teaching 

in our best schools. 

15. Disc2iss " Should the written recitation be substi- 

tuted for the formal examination ? " 

16. Give seven reasons why good teaching should take 

the place of all forms of comparative marking. 

17. Describe educative records and reports. Why 

should per-cent records and reports disappear 
from our schools ? 

18. Discuss " Should good teaching by fostering effi- 

cient study determine promotion and gradua- 
tion?" 

19. Why should teachers so manage that the old edu- 

cation will imperceptibly grow into the new, just 
as the serpent sheds its old skin in growing the 
new ? 

Pages 198 to 298. 

V. PUPIL BETTERMENT THROUGH BETTER SCHOOL AND COLLEGE 
ORGANIZATION AND CORRELATION. 

1. Look over the educational highway. What is the 

central idea in its construction ? Why is each 
line of study progressive and continuous ? 

2. What does each class of schools stand for ? What 

studies should constitute the school courses? 



SCHOOL MANAGEMEMT. 38 1 

3. Discuss the five necessary co-ordinate groups of 

studies; the five practical groups. 

4. Give the history of the Report of the Committee 

of Fifteen ; of the Committee of Ten. 

5. Describe the programme for elementary schools in 

the Report of the Committee of Fifteen. 

6. Tell the story of the rural schools. Is it true that 

most of our leaders come from these schools ? 

7. Discuss " May the rural schools be made as efficient 

as the city schools ?" 

8. Explain why country schools must be sm generis j 

why are ungraded schools least economical ? 

9. Picture your ideal rural school site; grounds; 

schoolhouse ; cloakroom ; civilized toilet. 

10. Why must our rural schools be arranged in or- 

ganic groups ? Is the township system best ? 

11. Discuss the rural district; school board; district 

principal ; district faculty ; district library. 

12. Explain the rural-school course of study; the four- 

group programme ; the three-group programme. 

13. Discuss "Should the central rural school gradually 

evolve into the district high school ? " 

14. How must the method of work in rural schools 

differ from that in the graded schools ? 

15. Describe the place and work of the kindergarten ; 

the ideal kindergarten; the ideal kindergartner. 

16. Give your views of the ideal primary-school house ; 

ideal faculty ; ideal library. 

17. Examine primary organization; course of study; 

programme ; methods. Why must the first pri- 
mary grade be made a semi-kindergarten ? 

18. Explain educational periods; the work of each 

school group ; the stages of school evolution. 



382 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 

19. Discuss "Will the spirit of progress compel the 

transformation of our graded grammar schools 
into specialized intermediate schools ? " 

20. Describe the special school-building system; de- 

scribe your ideal school building for the special- 
ized intermediate school of the future. 

21. Examine the intermediate study groups; the in- 

termediate course of study ; the specialized in- 
termediate programme. 

22. Describe the specialized intermediate school at 

work. 

23. When should specialization begin ? Give the view 

of leading educators. 

24. Discuss " Will the benefits of intermediate speciali- 

zation far outweigh its objections?" 

25. Give the history of the high school; its place; its 

functions ; its characteristics. 

26. Discuss high-school study groups; high-school 

courses ; high-school programmes. 

27. Describe the high-school faculty ; organization ; 

promotion ; graduation. 

28. Discuss college correlation ; adaptation ; methods; 

early specialization. 

Pages 299 to 373. 

VI. PUPIL IMPROVEMENT THROUGH EFFICIENT METHODS OF 

TEACHING. 

1. Discuss " Should the conduct group of studies take 

highest rank?" "Should conduct teaching be 
systematic ? " 

2. Trace through the schools and the college the five 

lines of conduct work. Give your special pro- 
gramme for the conduct studies. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 383 

3. Give your method in school conduct ; in how to 

study ; in manners ; in morals. 

4. Explain your method in primary history ; in inter- 

mediate history ; in high-school history ; in civ- 
ics ; in mind-lessons; in practical religion. 

5. Why do you consider history and biography sup- 

plemented by literature the great conduct stud- 
ies ? 

6. Discuss " Is duty the keynote in the practical cul- 

ture of the moral virtues ? " 

7. Trace the four lines of language-literature work ; 

show their organic unity. 

8. Investigate the special programme for language- 

literature studies. Discuss " Is too much time 
given to language-literature studies ? " 

9. Give your method in primary reading; in primary 

literature; in primary language lessons; in pri- 
mary composition ; in intermediate teaching of 
these studies in high school. 

10. Why do we call the science group of studies Nature 

studies? Give your estimate of their educative 
value. 

11. Trace through the schools and the college the 

three lines of Nature study ; show the organic 
unity of the science studies. 

12. Discuss special programmes for science work. Is 

one daily recitation period sufficient ? 

13. Give your method in primary geography ; in inter- 

mediate geography ; in correlating geography 
and history. 

14. Tell the story of the growth of the study of biol- 

ogy. Why must teachers make special prepara- 
tion for teaching biology ? 



384 SYLLABUS OF BALDWIN'S 

15. Give your method in primary biology; in inter- 

mediate biology ; in correlation of biology and 
other studies. 

16. Review Nature Studies, by Prof. Jackman ; Sys- 

tematic Science Teaching, by Prof. Howe. 

17. Why should the study of physics be continuous? 

Estimate its educative value. 

18. Give your method in primary physics; in interme- 

diate physics ; in high-school physics. 

19. Show the natural and helpful correlations of phys- 

ics and other studies. 

20. Discuss " Does good science teaching lessen inter- 

est and efficiency in the other study groups?" 

21. Trace through the schools and the college the two 

lines of mathematics work. Tell the educative 
value of these studies. 

22. Criticise the special programme for mathematics 

studies. Is the time adequate ? 

23. Give the five items of preparation for teaching 

mathematics; point out the danger from pre- 
sumption. 

24. What distinction do you make between pure and 

applied arithmetic ? Give six characteristics of 
the ideal text-book in arithmetic. 

25. In primary arithmetic illustrate the method of 

symbols; the method of things; the method of 
thought. 

26. Give your method in primary arithmetic; in ad- 

vanced arithmetic. 

27. How should we teach introductory algebra in sev- 

enth and eighth grades ? 

28. Give your methods in concrete geometry; point 

out its correlations. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 385 

29. Trace through the schools and the college the 

three lines of art study ; show their organic unity. 

30. Study the special programme for art work. What 

changes would you make ? 

31. What special preparations are necessary for teach- 

ing the school arts ? 

32. What is our ideal in physical culture? Why do 

you object to exercises that are vicarious, brutal- 
izing, violent, inferior ? 
^;^. Show that school exercises should be adapted ; 
systematic ; interesting ; educative. 

34. Explain the four pledges for home exercises. Why 

should exercise be habitual ? 

35. Estimate the educational value of music. Explain 

your method in primary music; in intermediate 
music. 
^6. Give your method in primary drawing ; in inter- 
mediate drawing ; in primary writing. Do you 
prefer vertical writing ? 

37. Estimate the value of drawing to the teacher ; to 

the pupil ; in life. 

38. Discuss *' Should manual training be continuous 

through the schools ? " 

39. Describe manual training in the kindergarten ; in 

the primary; in the intermediate; in the high 
school. 

40. What is your plan for getting manual training into 

all our schools? 



26 



INDEX. 



Abnormal fatigue, 41, 357, 358, 360. 

Adapted school exercises, 42, 361, 
363. 

Adopting regulations, 116. 

Esthetic culture, 59, 68, 360. 

Aids in geography, 72, 334. 

Alertness, ix, 160. 

Algebra, 200, 268, 280, 352. 

Alphabetical method, 325. 

Apparatus, Chap. VII; importance 
of, 69 ; school grounds, 70 ; school- 
room, 70 ; blackboard, 71 ; in con- 
duet, 71 ; in language-literature, 
72 ; in science, 339 ; in mathe- 
matics, 73, 351 ; in art, 74, 361, 367, 
369 ; laboratory, 169, 339. 

Appliances, betterment of, Chap. 
VI ; hygienic, 64 ; movements, 
64 ; electric programme clock, 65 ; 
physical comfort, 65 ; schoolroom 
outfit, 65 ; school apparatus, 69 ; 
library, 81. 

Architecture, educative, 61, 69 ; 
union school system, 258 ; special 
system, 259 ; hygienic, vii, ix. 

Arithmetical correlations, 351. 

Arithmetic, methods in, 345. 

Art of teaching, xi, xv, 10, 26, 36, 
163, 319, 353, 368. 

Art programme, 354. 

Art studies, good facilities, 74 ; 
courses in, 352 ; useful and beau- 



tiful, 210 ; special teacher, 268 ; 

art methods. Chap. XXX ; course 

in, 353. 
Artistic teaching, xi, 36, 154, 164, 

172, 181, 368. 
Attention, 154, 160, 185. 

Bacon, 6. 

Barnes, Earl, methods of studying 
children, 24. 

Benefits of specialization, 259, 270, 
277. 

Betz, Carl, Graded Gymnastics, 362. 

Biography, 207, 208, 306. 

Biology methods, 335. 

Blackboard, construction, 70 ; use, 
71 ; tactics, 175. 

Books, best help, 75 ; educate, 81 ; 
educative. Chap. VIII ; new edu- 
cation, 177 ; manuals, 306, 334, 343. 

Brooks, Edward, Normal Methods, 
373. 

Brutalizing exercises, 359. 

Butler, Nicholas Murray, pupil 
study, 14. 

Calisthenics, vii, 40, 42, 363. 
Career of teaching inviting, 29. 
Carlyle, 81. 

Central idea, xi, 4, 12, 202. 
Central school, 223, 239. 
Chair of pedagogy, 34, 293. 



387 



388 SCHOOL MANAGExMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Cheerfulness, 51, 97. 

Child study, value, 14 ; childhood, 
16 ; child friend, 17. 

Circles for pupil study, child, 17 ; 
boy and girl, 20 ; youth, 20. 

Civics, ix, 310. 

Class aivantages, ix, 152. 

Class management, class, 151 ; con- 
trol, 154 ; classification, 157 ; class 
"work, 159 ; efficient, ix; methods, 
162 ; class devices, 168 ; class tac- 
tics, 172. 

Class methods. Chap. XVI ; recita- 
tion, 158 ; criticism, ix. 

Class work, hygienic conditions, 
153; control, 154; characteristics, 
159; methods, ix, 162; devices, 
168. 

Classification, evolution, 150 ; the 
class, 151 ; criteria, 157 ; advan- 
tages of, 153 ; of ungraded schools, 
227 ; four-group plan, 227 ; three- 
group plan, 234. 

Classifying, rural schools, 153, and 
Chap. XXXI : primary schools, 
156, and Chap, XXII ; interme- 
diate schools, 156, and Chap. 
XXIII ; high school, 156, and 
Chap. XXIV. 

Cleanliness, schoolroom, 46 ; closets, 
47 ; personal, 50, 

Code, school, 114, 117, Chap. XIII. 

Coeducation, 290, 

College methods, 287, 309. 

Colleges, courses of study, 200, 217 
options, 219 ; small colleges, 292 
connection with high school, 288 
trained professors, 289 ; faculty a 
teaching unit, 290. 

Composition, 320, 329. 

Concentration, xv, 257, 333. 

Concrete geometry, 73, 352. 

Conduct culture, Chap. XXVI ; con- 
duct studies, 301 ; schpol conduct. 



303 ; history and conduct, 306 ; 
civics, 310 ; mind lessons and 
conduct, 311 ; religion and con- 
duct, 314 ; greatest, xiv, 208. 

Conduct programme, 302. 

Conduct specialists, 208, 260, 301. 

Conduct studies, helpful appliances, 
71 ; courses in, 200 ; greatest thing, 
208 ; rural schools, 229 ; conduct 
methods. Chap. XXVL 

Conscience, 127. 

Conversation method, 165. 

Co-ordinate study groups, neces- 
sary, 205 ; practical, 207 ; in school 
and college, 200. 

Co-ordination and correlation of 
educational institutions. Dr. Ma- 
gill, 294 ; educational highway, 
200, 253. 

Corporal punishment, viii, xii, 133, 
140, 144. 

Correlation of schools and courses, 
xiv, Chap. XX ; Eeport of Fifteen, 
211, 213 ; of studies, 200, 213 ; of 
intermediate woi-k, ,269 ; of con- 
duct studies, 306 ; of literature, 
321, 329 ; of arithmetic, 351 ; geog- 
raphy, 333 ; of biology, 337 ; of 
physics, 340 ; of mathematics, 341 ; 
of art, 351. 

Courses of study, general, 200 ; ele- 
mentary schools, 212 ; high 
school, 215, 288 ; college, 217, 288 ; 
rural schools, 230. 

Criticism, ix. 

Culture, conduct. Chap. XXVI ; 
physical. Chap. XXX ; ethical, 
315 ; sesthetical, 365, 367. 

Cycling, 364. 

De Garmo, C, Essentials of Method, 

873. 
Departments of education, 88. 
Desks, single and adjustable, 48. 



INDEX. 



389 



Devices, the class, 168 ; laboratory 
work, 169 ; outline work, ITO ; re- 
porting work, 170 ; original, 171 ; 
hurtful, 359. 

Dewey, John, Psychology of Num- 
ber, 346. 

Diagrams, the school, 2 ; educative 
conditions, 37 ; educative facili- 
ties, 56 ; school governinent, 92 ; 
educative incentives, lOT; govern- 
ing power, 95 ; educative class 
management, 148 ; oral and book 
work, 178 ; correlation of schools 
and courses, 200 ; methods of 
teaching, 300. 

Discussion method, 166. 

District school board, 222. 

Divine commission, 93. 

Drawing, 182, 367. 

Drill, 162. 

Drudgery, 358. 

Duty, 127, 130, 318. 

Early specialization, 293. 

Education, definition of, 201. 

Educational highway, 202, 253. 

Educational periods, 253. 

Educational press, xv, 355, 365. 

Educative class work, 153. 

Educative motives, 103, 107. 

Educative school government, viii, 
xiii, 93, 103, 112, 119, 232. 

Efficient methods, conduct teach- 
ing, 301 ; language-literature 
teaching, 319 ; science teaching, 
330 ; mathematics teaching, 341 ; 
art teaching, 353. 

Elementary schools, place, 211 ; 
course of study, 212, 230. 

Embryo republic, the school, 112. 

Enforcement ofregulations, 119, 121, 
122, 124, 126, 128. 

Environments, 57, 58, 63. 

Ethical culture, 315 ; historic, 316 ; 



ethical environments, 58, 317 ; 
ethical habits, 318 ; ethical con- 
science, 127, 130, 318. 

Evolution of school, 149 ; of class, 
150 ; of intermediate school, 254 ; 
of high school, 277. 

Examinations, hurtful, 185 ; peri- 
odic, 186 ; wasteful, 186 ; unedu- 
cative, 187 ; replaced by written 
recitation, 188. 

Excessive exercises, 360. 

Exercise, 40, 356, 361, 363. 

Faculty, rural school, 237 ; primary, 
245 - intermediate, 260 ; high- 
school, 286 ; college, 289. 

Faculty work, 238, 246, 266, 269, 287. 

Fatigue, 357. 

Four-group programme, 227, 234. 

Free exercises, 362. 

Frye, F. A., Methods and Aids in 
Geography, 334. 

Garlick, A. H., Manual of Methods, 
310. 

Gerieral libraries, 88. 

Geography, apparatus, 72 ; methods, 
333 ; how to teach, 334. 

Geometry, 73, 352. 

Germany, oral teaching, 79. 

Good teaching, best incentive, 
Chap. XIX ; written examina- 
tions, 185 ; per-cent marking, 189 : 
educative records, 191 ; promotion, 
194; high incentives, 189; all- 
sufficient, 190 ; ultimate, 191 ; 
comparative marking, 191. 

Governing power, elements of, 93 ; 
character, 94 ; culture, 95 ; pupil 
insight, 96 ; teaching power, 96 ; 
heart power, 97 ; will power, 98 ; 
system, 99; tact, 101 ; hearing, 102. 

Government, educative, vii, viii, xiii, 
9, 103, 112, 119, 129. 



390 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Grading, 255, 264. 

Graduation, 194. 

Greenwood, J. M., history of mathe- 
matics, 343 ; arithmetic, 347 ; prac- 
tical methods, 362. 

Grounds, school, sanitary, 58 ; aes- 
thetic, 59 ; educative, 70. 

Grouping rural schools, 227, 234. 

Groups of schools, unique, 254. 

Groups of studies, map of, 200, 280 ; 
conduct group, 300 ; language-lit- 
erature group, 320 ; science group, 
331 ; mathematics group, 341 ; art 
group, 353. 

Growth, 7, 9, 10, 36, 57, 93, 358. 

Gymnastics, systematic, vii, 42, 293, 
352, 363. 

Habits, regularity, 49 ; cleanliness, 
50 ; sleep, 50 ; clothing, 51 ; cheer- 
fulness, 51 ; law-abiding, 52, 128. 

Hall, G. Stanley, pupil study, 14: 
Methods of Teaching History, 310. 

Happy class control, 154. 

Harris, W. T., editor's preface, v, 
text-books, 75 ; use of, 80 ; the rod, 
141 ; study groups, 204 ; reading, 
323. 

Health, condition of, 38; through 
law-abiding, 38 ; conditions hap- 
piness, 52 ; culture of, 356. 

Heart power, 97, 134. 

Heating, normal temperature, 45. 

Helps, school, 8, 57, 69, 75, 81. 

Heredity, evolution of, 16. 

High educational ideals, Chap. I. 

High motives, self-betterment, 108 ; 
altruistic, 108 ; incentives of the 
true, beautiful, and good, 109. 

High-school education, Supt. Sol- 
dan, 288 ; study groups, 280. 

High school, improvement of. Chap. 
XXIV ; place, 214, 274; function, 
214 ; course of study, 215, 282 ; 



report of the Committee of Ten, 
214 ; prepares for life, 274 ; pre- 
pares for college, 275 ; history of, 
275 ; building, 277 ; programme, 
285 ; faculty, 286. 

High-school libraries, 85, 88. 

High-school methods, in history, 
309 ; in psychology, 313 ; in liter- 
ature, 324. 

Hinsdale, B. A., How to Study and 
Teach History, 310 ; bad methods 
in literature, 327 ; Teaching the 
Language Arts, 329. 

History, 207, 208, 306. 

History of the country school, 218. 

Home exercises, 363. 

Home hygiene, parental co-opera- 
tion, 39, 364. 

Howe, E. G., Systematic Science 
Teaching, 332. 

How to train pupils to study, ix, 1 62, 
303. 

Hurtful devices, 168, 359. 

Hurtful motives, 105, 189. 

Hygiene, school. Chap. IV ; health, 
38 ; neglect of, 39 ; home hy- 
giene, 39 ; play, 40 ; gymnastics, 
42; hourly recess, 41 ; lunch, 42 
ventilation, 42; heating, 44 
lighting, 45; cleanliness, 46 
toilet, 47 ; desk, 48 ; habits, 49. 

Hygienic conditions, of class work, 
153 ; of physical culture, vi, 356. 

Hygienic habits, 49, 356. 

Ideals, in advance of reals, xii, 3 ; 
realization, 5, 10 ; school ideals, 6 ; 
higher teacher ideals, 7 ; popular, 
ii ; ideal scheme, 295 ; ideal text- 
book, 75, 349. 

Incentives, educative, Chap. IX; 
extraneous, Chap. XIX. 

Individual method, 163. 

Individualism, ix, 149, 254. 



INDEX. 



391 



Infant study, Jesus, 14; real child, 
15: infancy, 15 ; baby friend, 16. 

Injudicious punishments, unjust, 
143 ; degrading, 143 ; fear, 142 ; 
corporal, 140, 144. 

Inorganic nature, x, 206, 331. 

Interest, 154, 185, 190. 

Intermediate libraries, 84, 87. 

Intermediate methods in history, 
308 ; in civics, 311 ; in mind les- 
sons, 312; in language, 328. 

Intermediate schools, improvement. 
Chap. XXIV ; ideal, 255 ; boy- 
and-girl stage of growth, 256 ; 
specialization, 257; faculty, 260; 
ideal buildings, 258 ; course of 
study, 263 ; programme, 265 ; 
benefits of specialization, xv, 270, 
355. 

Interrelation of studies, 269. 

Introductory algebra, 352. 

Investigation, 164. 

Johonnot, James, Principles and 
Practice of Teaching, 373. 

Journals, school, xv, 355, 365. 

Journal of the N. E. A., xv. 

Judicious punishments, 129, 133, 
137, 141. 

Kindergarten, place, 242; charac- 
teristics, 242 ; kindergartners, 
243 ; literature, 243 ; training the 
senses, 294. 

King, E. F., methods in geography, 
334. 



Laboratory work, 26, 169, 216. 
Lagrange, Fernand, Physiology of 

Bodily Exercise, 357. 
Landon, Joseph, Class Management, 

xxvi. 
Language-literature methods. Chap. 

XXVII; group of studies, 320; 



special programme, 320 ; organic 
unity, 321 ; methods in reading, 
322 ; in literature, 327 ; in com- 
position, 329 ; programme, 320. 

Language -literature studies, suit- 
able helps, 71 ; courses in, 200 ; 
second place, 209 ; special teacher, 
267 ; four lines, 320. 

Law-abiding, self-control. Chap. 
XIII ; educate to work quietly, 
119; educate to regularity, 121; 
educate to promptitude, 123 ; edu- 
cate to proper conduct, 125 ; edu- 
cate to right conduct, 127 ; meth- 
ods. Chap. XXVI. 

Laws, school regulations, 112 ; edu- 
cative, 113 ; positive, 113 ; few, 
113 ; practical, 114 ; popular, 114. 

Length of recitation, 213, 231. 

Lesson, plan, 161 ; oral, 180 ; book, 
182. 

Libraries, school. Chap. IX ; classi- 
fications, 82; management, 82; 
working, 83; rural, 83; primary, 
84 ; intermediate, 84 ; high-school, 
86 ; department, general, 88. 

Lighting, perfect, 45 ; windows, 46 ; 
injury to eyes, vi, 46, 64. 

Literature, x, 206, 327. 

Location, school, moral environ- 
ments, 58; commodious grounds, 
58 ; sanitary, 58 ; aesthetic, 59 ; 
educative, 60. 

McLellan, J. A., Psychology of 
Number, teaching arithmetic, 
346. 

McMurry's General Method, 373. 

Magill, E. H., co-ordination and 
correlation of educational institu- 
tions, 294. 

Management, vitalizes, 9 ; defini- 
tion, 12, 38, 57, 119. 

Manhood study, young manhood, 



392 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



20 ; student study circle, 20 ; biog- 
raphy and sociology, 21. 

Manual training, 210, 371. 

Manuals, in conduct, 306; in lan- 
guage-literature, 322 ; in science, 
332 ; in mathematics, 343 ; in art, 
362, 366, 368, 370 ; of method, 373. 

Manu-mental culture, 353, 367, 369. 

Mathematics studies, hest aids, 73 ; 
courses in, 200: form and num- 
ber, 210 ; special teacher, 268 ; 
methods in. Chap. XXIX; pro- 
gramme, 342. 

Men as well as women teachers, 
271, 287. 

Methods, in rural schools, 240 ; in 
conduct teaching, 301 ; in teach- 
ing history, 306 ; in teaching 
mind lessons, 311 ; in teaching 
practical religion, 314 ; in culture 
of moral virtues, 315; in lan- 
guage. Chap. XXVII ; in science. 
Chap. XXVIII ; in mathematics, 
Chap. XXIX; in art, Chap. 
XXX. 

Military exercises, 360. 

Mind lessons, 311. 

Moral character, 94, 127, 273, 315. 

Morbid fatigue, 359, 360. 

Motives, educative. Chap. XI; in- 
centives, 103 ; teacher determines, 
104; help or hurt, 104; school 
incentives, 105; hurtful, 115; 
law, 106; high, 108; what mo- 
tives, 111. 

Music, 365. 

Nature studies, 332. 

Necessary study groups, x, 205 ; 
inorganic nature, 206 ; organic, 
206 ; literature, 206 ; language, 
207 ; history, 207. 

New education, 8, 98, 159, 241. 

Normal fatigue and rest, 358, 360. 



Objectionable exercises, 359. 

Objective work, 181, 351. 

Observation, 180, 339. 

Old education, 96, 142, 150, 177. 

Oral teaching, oral instruction, 76 ; 
oral and book teaching, 79. 

Oral work. Chap. XVIII ; oral and 
book work, 178; oral teaching, 
180 ; oral methods, 305. 

Order, fitness, 119. 

Organic nature, x, 206. 

Organic unity of schools and 
courses, 201 ; part and whole, 
202 ; stages of growth, 203 ; or- 
ganic unity of faculties, xiii, 266. 

Organization, school improvement, 
8 ; rural school, 221; school dis- 
trict, 221; school board, 222; 
principal, 222 ; of primary 
schools, 247 ; of intermediate, 
261 ; of high school, 277. 

Our ideal manhood, 361. 

Outdoor school exercises, 40, 362. 

Parker, Francis W., value of child 
study, 14 ; per - cent marking, 
189; How to Study and Teach 
Geography, 334 ; concentration, 

XV. 

Fer-cent marking, criminal, Park- 
er, 189; outrage, Tompkins, 189; 
an idol, "White, 189; low motive, 
189 ; extraneous incentive, 192 ; 
vicious, 190; monster robber, 191; 
comparative marking vicious, 191. 

Physical culture, vii, 293, 353, 356, 
359, 361, 365. 

Physics, methods in, 268, 338. 

Physiology of exercise, 357. 

Plato, 243. 

Play, vii, 40, 242. 

Pledges, 363. 

Practical suggestions, apparatus, 
74; punishments, 144. 



INDEX. 



393 



Practical work, 351, 353. 

Prang's Form Study and Drawing, 
368. 

Prepared teachers, 7, 12, 26, 93, 176, 
336, 343. 

Preparation for teaching, 30, 35, 289, 
301, 322, 336, 343, 354. 

Primary, ideal schoolhouse, 244; 
faculty, 245 ; organization, 247 ; 
course of study, 259 ; programme, 
252 ; methods, 243. 

Primary libraries, 83, 87, 245. 

Primary methods in history, 307 ; 
in reading, 323 ; in mathematics, 
347 ; in geography, 333. 

Prince, J. F., German methods, 79. 

Principal, primary, 245 ; interme- 
diate, 260 ; high-school, 286. 

Privation, 121, 123, 128, 136. 

Professional schools, departments 
of education, 33 ; chairs of peda- 
gogy, 34 ; normal schools, 34 ; 
summer normals, 35 ; circles, xy._ 

Profession of teaching, advance- 
ment, 27, 36. 

Programme clock, 65, 173. 

Programme, for ungraded schools, 
233, 236 ; primary, 252 ; interme- 
diate, 265 ; high-school, 285. 

Programme, in conduct, 302 ; in lan- 
guage-literature, 320 ; in science, 
331 ; in mathematics, 341 : in art, 
354. 

Progress, through ideals, 3, 161 ; 
pupil alertness, ix. 

Promotion, 157, 194, 213, 248, 261. 
Promptitude, importance, 115 ; law, 
123; example, 123; incentives, 
124. 
Proper conduct, importance, 115; 
law, 125 ; example, 125 ; motives, 
125; training, 125; remedies, 126. 
Provinces of study, XII, 205, 331. 
Psychology, 13, 23, 96, 311, 313. 



Punishment, educative, viii. Chap. 
XIV ; moral necessity, 128 ; reme- 
dial, 129; use of suii'ering, 130; 
principles determining, 130 ; edu- 
cative, 131 ; reformatory, 131 ; 
natural, 132 ; just, 132 ; helpful, 
133 ; disapproval, 133 ; reproof, 
134; privation, 136; suspension, 
137 ; corporal, 140 ; fear, 142 ; de- 
grading, 143 ; unjust, 144. 

Pupil betterment central idea, 4; 
through educative management, 
14. 

Pupil study, greatest thing, 6 ; Chap. 
II ; neglect of, 13 ; value to teach- 
er, 14 ; physical economy, 21 ; 
mental economy, 23 ; self-knowl- 
edge, 23 ; methods of, 24 ; Barnes, 
Parker, Hall, 24 ; insight, 96. 

Quiet work, important, 114; condi- 
tions of, 119; example, 120; altru- 
- istic incentives, 120 ; training, 120. 

Kecesses, vii. 

Recitation, class work, 158 ; charac- 
teristics, 159 ; methods, 162 ; de- 
vices, 168; tactics, 172; periods, 
213 ; time, 213 ; management, ix. 

Eecitation periods, elementary 
schools, 213 ; rural schools, 231 ; 
primary schools, 244. 

Eecord and reports, educative, 191 ; 
attendance, conduct, class stand- 
ing, 192; reports, 193. 

Recreation, 40, 362. 

Reform, Bacon's rule, 6 ; peren- ^ 
nial, 6. 

Regularity, importance, 122; incen- 
tives, 122 ; enforcement, 123. 

Regulations, educative. Chap. XII ; 
guiding principles, 113 ; school 
code, 114; adoption of, 116; en- 
forcement of. Chap. Xlll. 



394 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL METHODS. 



Eeligion, methods of teaching, 314. 

Eeport of the Committee of Fifteen, 
correlation, 211. 

Eeport of the Committee of Ten, 
secondary schools, 214. 

Eeproof, 134. 

Eest, 358, 362. 

Eeview, 160. 

Eight conduct, importance, 115 ; 
law, 127; example, 127; moral 
teaching, 127 ; training, 128 ; pun- 
ishment, 128. 

Eowing, 365. 

Eural libraries, 83, 86, 224. 

Eural schools, efficient. Chap. XXI ; 
story of, 218 ; sui generis^ 219 ; 
ungraded, 219 ; school grounds, 
220; schoolhouse, 220; organiza- 
tion, 221; library, 224; advan- 
tages, 226 ; disadvantages, 226 ; 
course of study, 230 ; programme, 
233 ; faculty, 237 ; methods, 240. 

Salaries, generous, 28. 

School arts, 353. 

School district, 221. 

School essentials and school helps 
(diagrams), 2. 

School evolution, 5, 254. 

School government. Part III ; prac- 
tical, vii, viii ; rational, xi. 

School grounds, 60, 220. 

Schoolhouse, central, 60 ; evolution 
of, 61; ideal, 62, 220; primary, 
244 ; intermediate, 255 ; high- 
school, 277. 

School hygiene. Chap. IV; in class 
control, 154; in school work, 8; 
in school government, 119. 

School organism, a unit, 4 ; organic 
growth, 4 ; evolution, 5 ; ideal, 6. 

School tactics, 172. 

Science studies, teaching, Chap. 
XXVIII ; science apparatus, 72 ; 



courses in, 200; inorganic and 
organic Nature, 209 ; special 
teacher, 268 ; lines of work, 331 ; 
programme, 332 ; methods in, 330. 

Scott, C. B., Nature Study, 332. 

Secondary schools, place, 214 ; 
course of study, 215, 282 ; report 
of the Committee of Ten, 214. 

Shaw,E. E., Physics by Experiment, 
339. 

Signals, 65, 172, 173. 

Sheldon, E. A., ceaseless progress,33. 

Size of classes, 152. 

Special conduct lessons, 302. 

Special programme for conduct, 
302 ; for language-literature, 320 ; 
for science, 332 ; for mathematics, 
342 ; for art, 352. 

Special teacher, 265. 

Specialization, xiv, 253, 257; Chap. 
XXIII, 293. 

Specialization, cardinal, 28. 

Spontaneity, in recitation, 159; in 
gymnastics, 362. 

Study groups of the rural schools, 
229 ; primary schools, 249 ; inter- 
mediate, 262; high school, 280; 
college, 200. 

Study hints, educational conditions; 
53 ; school facilities, 89 ; school 
government, 145 ; class manage- 
ment, 196 ; school and college 
correlation, 295 ; methods of 
teaching, 370. 

Suspension, 137, 141. 

System, 99 ; element, 100. 

Systematic Science Teaching, E. G. 
Howe, 332. 

Systematical Physical Culture, 42, 
293, 361. 

Tact, governing element, 101. 
Tactics, school and class. Chap. 
XVII. 



^ 



INDEX. 



395 



Tarbell, H. S., primary geography, 
33i. 

Tardiness, 115, 124. 

Teacher circles, xv, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. 

Teacher betterment through pro- 
fessional preparation. Chap. III. 

Teacher, vital factor, 6 ; the ideal, 
12; improvement of. Chap. Ill; 
gifted, 30 ; culture, 31 ; ]^epared, 
31 ; devoted, 32 ; progressive, 33. 

Teaching, a profession, 27 ; perma- 
nency, 27 ; salaries, 28 ; speciali- 
zation, 28 ; career, 29 ; learned 
profession, 30 ; defined, 201 ; art 
of, 353 ; skill, 368. 

Teaching mathematics, 843. 

Teaching power, 96, 103, 154, 180, 
185. 

Teaching question, 164. 

Testing the senses, 22. 

Text-book, ideal. Chap. VIII; best 
help, 75 ; use, 75 ; characteristics, 
76; book teaching, 76, 79; free, 
80 ; arithmetic, 369. 

Thompson, school management, 
xiv; Tompkins, Arnold, 189. 

Topics for discussion, educational 
conditions, 53 ; school facilities, 
89 ; school government, 145 ; class 
management, 196; school and 
college correlation, 295 ; methods 
of teaching, 370. 

Training, 120, 124, 125, 128, 357. 



Ungraded schools. Chap. XXI ; un- 
economical, 338. 

Unity, method, 163. 

University, characteristics, 292 ; un- 
dergraduates, 292 ; course system, 
293 ; early specialization, 293. 

Unrelated knowledge, 280. 

Ventilation, injudicious, vii; per- 
fect, 42 ; neglect of, 43 ; pure air, 
43. 

Vicarious exercise, 359. 

Vocal music, 365. 

Walking, 364. 

White, E. E., per-cent marking, 189 ; 
three-group programme, 236 ; 
school management, xv ; manual 
of primary arithmetic, 347. 

Will power, 98. 

Windows of the soul, x. 

Working, 364. 

Working libraries, rural, 83, 225; 
primary, 84 ; intermediate, 84 ; 
high-school, 85. 

Writing, 370. 

Written recitations in lieu of ex- 
aminations, 185 ; educative, 
185. 

Youth, 276. 

Youth study, what is the youth, 19 ; 
literature, 25. 



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